Psych chaps 9-11
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| Developmental psychology | Examines age-related physical, cognitive, & socioemotional changes across the lifespan
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| Physical development | biologically driven progression
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| Cognitive development | memory, problem solving, decision making, language, & intelligence
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| Socioemotional development | Social behavior, emotions, & changes experienced in relationships, feelings, & overall disposition
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| Biopsychosocial perspective | Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological, psychological, and social forces shaping human development
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| Cross-sectional method | Examines people of different ages at a single point in time
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| Longitudinal method | One sample of people over a period of time to determine age-related changes
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| Chromosomes | Inherited threadlike structures composed of DNA
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| Zygote | Fusion of sperm and egg
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| XX indicates… | female
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| XY indicates… | male
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| Every cell (expect red blood cells and sex cells) has… | a set of 23 pairs of chromosomes
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| Monozygotic twins | Identical twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception, then split
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| Dizygotic twins | Fraternal twins develop from two eggs inseminated by two sperm
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| Genotype | Features that are in your genes; it cannot be seen on the outside
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| Phenotype | Physical features that can be seen on the outside
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| Teratogens | An agent or factor that causes malformation of an embryo (ex: alcohol)
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| Piaget & cognitive development | infant cognitive abilities are different from an adult's
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| Sensorimotor | first stage in Piaget's theory (0-2 years old); object permanence; babies use skills they were born with
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| Preoperational | second stage in Piaget's theory (2-7 years old); egocentrism; conservation error; children use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play
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| concrete operational | third stage in Piaget's theory (7-11 years old); logical thinking in reference to concrete objects & circumstances
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| formal operational | fourth stage in Piaget's theory (12 years and older); more logical and systematic thinking
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| Schema (Piaget) | Process of acquiring information/knowledge
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| Assimilation | Process for how we add info or experiences into our existing structures of knowledge or schemas
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| Accommodation | altering one's existing ideas (schemas) abt how the world operates in response to new info and experiences
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| Scaffolding | the passive, natural process through which new concepts are formed, esp in early childhood
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| Zone of Proximal Development | the difference between what a learner can do w/o help and what they can achieve with help from a skilled partner
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| Temperament | Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional reactions that are evident from birth
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| Mary Ainsworth & Attachment | Refers to degree to which infants feel emotional connection w/ primary caregivers (assessed using the Strange Situation paradigm)
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| Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development | Proposed that human development is marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age
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| Trust vs mistrust | Birth up to 1 year. Positive: trusts and has faith in others; Negative: mistrusts and expects the worst of people
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| Autonomy vs shame and doubt | 1 to 3 years old. Positive: learns to be autonomous and independent; Negative: learns to feel shame and doubt when freedom to explore is restricted
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| Initiative vs guilt | 3 to 6 years old. Positive: becomes more responsible, shows the ability to follow though; Negative: develops guilts and anxiety when unable to handle responsibilities
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| Menarche | First menstruation
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| Spermarche | A male experiences his first ejaculation
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| Adolescent egocentrism | Intense focus on self and feelings of immortality (can lead to increased risky behaviors)
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| Ego Identity vs Role Confusion | Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new ideas. Positive resolution = stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals; Negative resolution = role confusion
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| Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development | Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong
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| Preconventional moral reasoning | Age range is young children. Right and wrong are determined by the consequences.
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| Conventional moral reasoning | This emerges around puberty. Right and wrong are informed by the expectations of society and important others, not simply personal consequences
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| Postconventional moral reasoning | Age range is adulthood. Right and wrong are determined by the individual's beliefs about morality, which may be inconsistent with society's rules rules and regulations
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| Critics of Kohlberg's Theory | Women's moral reasoning not represented. Theory applicable to Western, collectivist cultures. Moral behavior defined, but not predicted.
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| Intimacy vs isolation | Young adulthood. Positive: forming deep, meaningful relationships; Negative: failure results in isolation
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| Generativity vs stagnation | Middle adulthood. Positive: feeling like we have made an impact on the next gen; Negative: failure manifests as boredom, conceit, selfishness
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| Integrity vs despair | Late adulthood. Positive: sense of accomplishment and satisfaction; Negative: failure leads to us feeling regret and dissatisfaction
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| Extrinsic motivation | The drive or urge to continue a behavior because of external reinforcers (ex: wanting to win for maybe price money)
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| Intrinsic motivation | The drive or urge to continue a behavior because of internal reinforcers (ex: wanting to win because it makes you feel good)
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| Maslow's hierarchy | From bottom to top: physiological, safety, love & belongingness, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence (the sequence isn't necessarily set in stone)
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| Deci and Ryan | Humans are both w 3 universal needs that drive them in the direction of optimal functioning: need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy
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| Murray | Human are motivated by 20 fundamental needs
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| McClelland & colleagues | Some people are motivated by the need for power
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| Set point for weight | Stable weight that is maintained despite variability in exercise and food intake
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| Settling point for weight | Set weight loss & gain in most humans is related to the patterns of diet and physical activity that people "settle" into as habits`
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| Emotions | Psychological state; subjective or inner experience, physiological component, and behavioral expression; initiated by a stimulus; more likely to motivate action
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| Mood | Long-term emotional states; less intense than emotions; lack distinct beginning and end
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| James-Lange | body changes lead to emotions
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| Cannon-Bard | body changes & emotions happen together
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| Schachter-Singer | our thoughts about our body changes lead to emotions
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| Lazarus | our thoughts about our situation lead to emotions
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| Display rules | framework or guidelines for when. how, and where an emotion is expressed (influenced by culture; taught early in life)
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| Amydala | part of the brain responsible for fear emotion
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| Sexuality | human nature encompassing everything that makes us sexual beings; sexual activities, attitudes, & behaviors
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| Sex | classification of someone as male, female, or intersex based on biological characteristics
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| Gender | the dimension of masculinity & femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics
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| Androgens | male hormones secreted by the testes in males & by the adrenal glands in both males & females
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| Testosterone | an androgen that plays a role in determining whether the fetus develops male or female genitals
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| Estrogen | the female hormone secreted primarily by the ovaries & by the adrenal glands in both males & females
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| Thelarche | breast development
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| Intersexual | having "conflicting or ambiguous biological indicators" or male or female in sexual structures & organs
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| Differences of sex development | Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY); Turner's Syndrome (XO)
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| Gender Identity | the feeling or sense of being male, female, or an alternative gender
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| Nonbinary | gender identity that falls outside of the categories of man or woman
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| Gender roles | the collection of actions, beliefs, & characteristics that a culture associated w/ masculinity & femininity
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| Gender schemas | psychological or mental guidelines that dictate how to be masculine or feminine
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| Androgyny | the tendency to cross gender-role boundaries, exhibiting behaviors associated w/ both genders
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| transgender | people whose gender identity & expression do not typically match the gender assigned to them at birth (can be temporary or persistent)
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| Transsexual | individuals who seek or undergo a social transition to the other gender, & who may make changes to their body thru surgery & medical treatment
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| Gender affirmation | using medical treatments to transition
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| Masters & Johnson | human sexual response model; concluded that most people experience similar responses
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| Evolutionary psychology | sex ensures the survival of the species
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| kin altruism | gay men & women support reproduction in families by helping a relative care for children
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| Age at first marriage | 27 for women, 29 for men
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| Odds for 10-year marrige | 68% for women, 70% for men
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| Odds for 20-year marriage | 52% for women, 56% for men
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| Sexual dysfunction | significant disturbance in the ability to respond sexual or to gain pleasure from sex
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| sexual scripts | cultural rules that tell us what activities are appropriate & do not interfere w/ healthy sexual activity
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| Paraphilia | uncommon sexual acts (fetishism, exhibitionism, sexual masochism/sadism, voyeurism)
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| Refractory period | the period of time in which a man cannot achieve another orgasm following a previous one (women do not have this)
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