PSYCH 365 Exam #1
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| Motivation | force that moves one toward achieving their goals
Motivation is a force that provides energy and direction to behavior
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| Energy | provides mobilizations, strength, intensity, persistence to behavior
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| Direction | behavior is aimed at a particular or goal
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| Self-determination theory | view that human beings are intrinsically motivated to determine their own lives, shaped by the core needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
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| Autonomy (Ryan & Deci) | choosing own path/ behavior
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| Competence (Ryan & Deci) | succeeding at tasks / mastering new skills
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| Relatedness (Ryan & Deci) | socially connecting w/ others
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| Introjected regulation | motivation based on awareness of societal norms regarding this behavior and wish to avoid internal feelings of shame or embarrassment that might arise if you didn’t behave in concordance with these norms
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| Identified regulation | motivation based on behavior feeling like it is part of one’s identity
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| Integrated regulation | motivation that began with rewards and punishments but is transitioning to a more internalized appreciation of this behavior
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| Regulatory focus theory | view that it is important to consider whether a motivation is focused on promoting a desired end state or preventing an undesired end state
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| Some motivated behaviors work to... Promote | PROMOTE a desired end state (something we want to happen)
ex: find seasonal partner
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| Some motivated behaviors work to... prevent | PREVENT an undesired end state (something we don't want to happen
ex: pay bills on time to avoid bad bill
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| hedonism (early philosophy) | tendency of human beings (and other organisms) to approach pleasure/reward and avoid pain/punishment is a driving force underlying human behavior
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| Intrinsic motivation | motivation that springs naturally from within/ internal satisfaction (i.e. pleasure, enjoyment, self-determination)
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| Extrinsic motivation | motivation derived from external rewards or punishments / avoid punishment if I don’t do the thing
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| Rewarding extrinsically motivated behavior | increases performance
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| Rewarding intrinsically motivated behavior | decreases performance
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| Approach | goals focused on promoting a desired end
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| Avoidance | goals focused on preventing an undesired end
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| Emotion | complex sequence of reactions to an internal or external stimulus that involves changes in thinking or cognition, physiological arousal and brain activity, subjective feeling, and motivated behavior, all geared toward affecting the initial stimulus
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| James-Lange Theory | view that emotions (especially the feeling aspects of emotions) are the labels we give to the way the body reacts to certain situations
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| Drives | distinguishes emotions from purely internal drive / a motivational force that arises when a human biological need (e.g., hunger, thirst) is deprived
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| Appraisal | subjective interpretation of what a stimuli means for our goals, concerns, well-being
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| Overjustification hypothesis | proposition that a person’s intrinsic interest in an activity may be decreased by inducing him to engage in that activity as an explicit means to some extrinsic goal
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| External regulation | external rewards/ punishments
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| 4 main aspects of emotion | (1) Appraisal (2) Feeling (3) Physiological change (4) Behavior
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| Early philosophy: Hedonism | approach pleasure / avoid pain
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| Early 20th Century: Will | the ability to freely make choices
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| Influence of Darwin | evolutionary perspectives/ survival of the fittest/ selection
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| 1950s: Behaviorism | rewards / punishments
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| 1960s: Cognitive Revolution | roles of expectations/ values / personal understanding of what should/ should not happen
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| 1980s+: Social/ Emotional | the importance of culture, emotions, sociality
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| Ryan & Deci’s Self Determination Theory | Humans possess innate psychological needs that drive intrinsic motivation
- autonomy, competence, relatedness
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| David McClelland’s Theory of Needs (3 motivations) | 1. need for achievement
2. need for affiliation
3. need for power
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| 1. Need for achievement (McClelland theory) | striving for excellence
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| 2. Need for affiliation (McClelland theory) | finding/ maintaining close, warm emotional relationships
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| 3. Need for power (McClelland theory) | feeling strong/ influencing others (aka seeking prestige/ status)
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| Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs | - Lower needs must be met first in order to achieve the higher point of the pyramid
- The ultimate human need is to self-actualize
- Big criteria is the rigidity of hierarchy of needs
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| Self-actualization | processing of reaching one’s full potential in order to be your full self
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| Douglas Kenrick’s Fundamental Motives | Our basic motives ultimately center around survival/ reproduction
Emphasis on diff motives changes across the lifespan
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| Circumplex model (dimensional) | model in which emotional feelings from a circle; emotions close to each other on the circle are similar or likely to be experienced at the same time
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| Evaluative space model (dimensional) | model of attitudes, proposing that evaluations of some target’s goodness/ badness are independent rather than opposites
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| Mood | diffuse, longer-lasting affective state of being not tied to a particular stimulus
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| Basic Emotions Theory (discrete) | Emotions are biologically innate/ universal + these emotions are triggered by specific evolutinary adaptive responses / can be universally recognized across cultures
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| Component process model (discrete) | idea that emotions reflect the intersection of several appraisal dimensions that can be combined in diff ways
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| What is Emotion? | Emotions help us pursue these basic human needs
- internal feelings as well as observable behaviors/ assume that feelings are valid explanations for behavior
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| Common sense view of emotion | Event → Feeling → Behavior
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| Emotions- James-Lange | emotions are labels we to the way the body reacts to certain situations
Eliciting Event → Physiological Changes & Behaviors → Feeling
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| Revised James-Lange | Eliciting event → appraisal → physiological changes/ behaviors → feeling
- Each emotion have their own physiological response
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| Schachter-Singer Theory (1962) (2 factory theory) | Emotions are result of both physiological arousal/ cognitive interpretation of that arousal, experience physiological response to a stimulus/ then label arousal= emotional experience
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| Modern approaches (ongoing debate) | 1. Discrete approaches
2. Dimensional approaches
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| Discrete approach | emotions are categorically distinct w/ each serving a unique adaptive function
- basic emotions theory
- component process model
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| Dimensional approach | emotions are socially constructed / an emotion is the name given to a particular combination of psychological/ physiological dimensions
- psychological construction approach
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| Criteria for Basic Emotions (1-2) | 1. should be universal among human
2. should have a universal to communicate to others, innate form of non-verbal expression (facial/ vocal)
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| Criteria for Basic Emotions (3-4) | 3. emotions should be evident early in life
4. should be physiologically distinct from one another in the body/ brain
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| What is Emotion: Discrete Apporach | Emotions are responses to objects / events that take place
Emotions are functional (emotions help us achieve our goals/ help us w/ our motivation)
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| What is Emotion: Dimensional Approach | Emphasis os on subjective feeling as the defining aspect of emotion, referred to as “Core Affect”
- Eliciting event → valence (pleasantness) or physiological arousal → both go to Feeling (Core affect)
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| Psychological Construct Model | process by which ppl develop mental concepts linking diff aspects of emotion to each other / to eliciting situations
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| Theories of Emotions have in Common | 1. Both NATURE + NURTURE influence emotion
2. Emotions serve VALUABLE FUNCTIONS
3. APPRAISAL is crucial predictor of emotional experience / behavior
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| Distal causes | causes of some event that are removed in terms of time or process
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| Proximal causes | causes of some event that are close in terms of time or process
- motivational state is within the body
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| Leptin | hormone produced by fat cells that generally reduces feelings of hunger
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| Ghrelin | peptide hormone produced by the stomach, as well as other parts of the digestive system/ structures in the brain that generally increases feelings of hunger
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| Rooting reflex | newborn infants turn their head/ begin to suck when something gently touches the corner of their mouth
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| Cue reactivity | conditioned response to objects, places, other stimuli previously associated w/ rewards
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| Core idea of appraisal | elicits an emotional response is not the objective stimulus, but our subjective interpretation of what the stimulus means for our goals
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| Arnold’s theory | prioritizes cognitive appraisal
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| Lazarus theory | arguing that appraisal causes emotions, but is not the emotion; emotions include physiological, motivational, behavioral response
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| Appraisal Theory | emotions are not about isolated things out there in the world; about our “ongoing relationships” with the environment
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| Emotion + Motivation Similarities (1-2) | 1. Approach (reward)/ avoidance (punishment)
2. Energy / direction → energy= where we getting this persistence / direct= toward it or away from it
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| Emotion + Motivation Similarities (3-4) | 3. Neural circuits → same neural circuit / rooted in exact same processes
4. Predispositions to action
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| Emotion + Motivation Differences (2) | 1. Emotions more focused on the present
2. Motivation tends to be more diffuse, longer-range, focused on the future
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| Emotions Facilitate Motivation | 1. Provide energy component of motivation
2. Serve as feedback on how goals are processing
3. can't talk abt one without the other
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| How are Emotions & Motivational States Activated? | 1. Biological responses
2. reflexes/ instincts
3. conditioning
4. appraisals
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| 1. Natural Biological responses | hormones to indicate hunger, tiredness → nothing can get done unless I eat/ hormones are signaling a need for more energy to compensate
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| 2. Reflexes / Instincts | E.g startle response (natural inclination to move away from danger)/ rooting reflex in infants (food near mouth means eat)
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| 3. Conditioning | E.g. smells activating certain feelings; OR Little Albert (fear conditioning)
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| 4. Appraisal | already have def/ this is for how emotions/ motivational states activate
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| Speed of appraisal | Eliciting event → Appraisal → Physiological changes/ behaviors → Feeling → Faster than conscious thought
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| Speed of appraisal- Preps body for how to respond | Appraisal is abt assessing situation to determine “call to action” or “inaction” → preps body for how we need to respond
assessment triggers physio changes / behaviors (3)
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| 1. Before body knows we are scared (speed of appraisal) | already assessed some level that there is danger
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| 2. In order for an expression to come onto one’s face (speed of appraisal) | one has to visual sense that info/ get to a perceptual level to make aware of what im seeing
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| 3. Even if show photo of fearful expression below that conscious awareness threshold (speed of appraisal) | showed it so quickly, but already responded to it / there has to be something going on prior to the photo being shown
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| Content of Appraisal (2 Approaches) | 1. Core Relational Themes
2. Appraisal Dimensions
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| 1. Core Relational Themes (Lazarus) | prototypical kind of problem that need to address or benefit that one encounters in their environment
- ex: anger; theme: demeaning offense against me or mine
- linked to basic / discrete emotion theory
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| 2. Appraisal Dimensions (Scherer) | A common set of questions used to evaluate the meaning of every stimulus or situation we encounter
- ex: expectedness (dimension); question= was I expected this to happen?
- linked to component process model
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| Core Relational Themes (procedure/ results) | procedure: participants described personal emotion-eliciting experiences
results: accounted for 34-60% of variability in emotion ratings
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| Appraisal Dimensions | common set of questions used to evaluate the meaning of every stimulus or situation we encounter; appraisal profiles, rather than individual themes, are associated with specific emotions
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| Manipulating Motivation & Emotion (Research Methods) | 1. Relived experience
2. scenarios
3. photographs or film
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| 1. Relived experience | vividly recall/ relive a personal experience w/ a strong emotion
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| 2. Scenarios | read/ imagine yourself in a short story intended to elicit a particular emotion
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| 3. Photographs or film | view or watch images intended to elicit a particular emotion
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| Limitations to Manipulation (1-2) | 1. Other than basic needs, motivation is rooted in personal goals
2. Can only observe or prime motivation that ppl already have
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| Limitations to Manipulation (3-5) | 3. Emotions are weaker when manipulated than real life experience
4. 3 tactics helpful to elicit emotion, but not do a great job with motivation
5. Create a real life event in the moment to induces a given emotion
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| Measuring Emotions & Motivation | 1. Self-report
2. Biological measures
3. Behavioral observations
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| 1. Self-report | Ratings or description of feelings, thoughts, or other aspects of emotion
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| Pros of self-report | - Easy, fast, cheap to do
- Gives good idea of subjective experiences aspects of emotion (how are you feeling)
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| Cons of self-report | Likert scale lacks objectivity
People dont always have accurate sense of their own current state
Language / dialect differences
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| 2. Biological measures | Measures of neurological or physiological activity that change in response to particular stimuli → observing changes in the body/ brain
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| Pros of biological measures | Changes are more objective / precise
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| Cons of biological measures | A lot of variability between ppl (MUST include a baseline)
Changes occur from non-emotional stimuli
Loss of “realism
costly/ dont have right resources
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| 3. Behavioral Observations | Observe actions such as facial expression, speech, body language, task performance, or other emotion associated behaviors
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| Pros behavioral observations | Shows ppl’s responses in a natural/ real world way
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| Cons behavioral observations | Emotion concealment efforts
Variation in how ppl express
Time consuming/ challenging
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| Measurement "Trifecta" (3) | 1. Self-report
2. Biology
3. Behavior
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| Factor 1- Universal / Cultural Variation | Some emotions are universally experienced → BUT what elicits that emotion is learned
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| Factor 2- Universal / Cultural Variation | Some emotion terms only exist in certain cultures → BUT that doesn’t mean the experience can’t be understood universally
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| Factor 3- Universal / Cultural Variation | Some goals are specific to the person, some are basic human motives
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| Natural selection | characteristic/ mutation that is problematic for survival/ reproduction dies out over time
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| Adaptations | characteristic/ mutation that is helpful for survival/ reproduction spread until it becomes typical in the population
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| Evolution & Psychology | Charles darwin proposed that just like biological traits, psychological traits/ states are part of the human evolutionary heritage
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| Emotions are Functional (3) | 1. characteristic increases the probability
2. characteristic increases the number of offspring
3. characteristic increases the probability that your genetic relatives
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| Functional does NOT mean it is “Good” | Can pursue a goal or feel an emotion at a situationally inappropriate time
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| Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) | time/ place in the past when an adaption spread through the population via natural selection
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| Evolutionary mismatch | adaptation that was beneficial in the EEA may not be beneficial in modern world
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| Evolution & Motivation | Many theories of motivation are implicitly or explicitly rooted in identifying basic motives that are universal to the human experience
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| Kenrick’s Fundamental Motives Pyramid | immediate physiological needs
self-protection
affiliations
status/ esteem
mate acquisition
mate retention
parenting/ kincare
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| Funtionalism | understand basic motives, we need to start from place of functionalism (what are the basic needs we need to survive)
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| Characteristics- Kenrick’s Fundamental Motives | - Motives change across lifespan
- appraisal of stimuli informed by basic motivations / then shapes relevant emotion
- Emotions help facilitate basic needs/ motivations
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| Process of Emotion- Kenrick’s Fundamental Motives | eliciting event --> appraisal --> emotion --> behavior
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| Universality / Cultural Factors | 1. Some emotions are universally experienced
2. Some emotion terms only exist in certain cultures
3. Some goals are specific to the person, some are basic human motives
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| Natural selection | characteristic/ mutation that is problematic for survival/ reproduction dies out over time
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| Adaptations | characteristic/ mutation that is helpful for survival/ reproduction spread until it becomes typical in the population
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| How they may be related to emotion (Kenrick's motives) | - When a particular motive is actived by a situation
- emotions act as the “fuel” driving actions based on these fundamental motivations
- Emotions helps facilitate basic needs/ motivations
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| Phylogeny | study of how organisms have evolved over time/ relationships between them --> branches to show how species are related / newer emotions evolved from more archaic ones in response to new selection pressures
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| Culture | ways of interpreting, understanding, explaining the world, including specifying appropriate behavior based on defined norms
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| Factors of Culture | 1. systems of meaning
2. activates or constructs meaning through social participation
3. Shared cultural systems of meaning influence psychological processes in individual
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| Individualism | cultural emphasis on individual uniqueness, personal rights, being true to one’s self, independence from others (EX: US)
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| Collectvism | cultural emphasis on prioriziting group over individual, deference, social harmony, interdependence (EX: East Asia, India)
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| Vertical society | people attend closely to social hierarchy, encouraging emotions/ behaviors that respect status differences (EX: India)
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| Horizontal society | people typically minimze attention to status differences, seldom acknowledge status differences publicity (EX: Sweden) → looking for feedback/ contribute to everything, not a status difference
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| Power distance | make the expression of certain emotions more or less appropriate → found competitors from more hierarchical cultures– countries high on power distance– showed stronger displays of triumph
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| How emotion differs by culture | 1. traditional, rituals, habits, values
2. Language
3. Individualistic/ collectivism
4. Power distance (vertical/ hortizontal society)
5. Behavioral norms
6. Biculturalism
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| Biculturalism | experience of belonging to two (or more) distinct cultures, including navigating / embracing the values, customs, traditions of both cultures simultaneously
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| Language | complex where the same concept can also appear via multiple words w/ subtly different meaning
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| Weak version of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis | people experience / express emotion for which they have a word more than those for which they don’t have a word
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| Hypercognized emotions | those for which a culture has an elaborate network of associations / distinctions, leading to increased vocabulary
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| Hypocognized emotions | those for which a culture/ language have little cognitive elaboration or detail
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| Ideal affect | profile of emotional states that is considered most desirable; varies from individual to individual and across cultures
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| When + Where Emotions are Felt | Cultural affects the situations or contexts in which specific emotions are likely to be triggered
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| Motivational & Emotional systems are BOTH evolved/ culturally influenced | Underlying functions / appraisals tend to be more universal
Specific eliciting events/ expressive displays tend to be more culturall influenced
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| Social functions of emotion | ways in which emotions support committed interdependent / complex relationships among people that in turn help us to survive / pass on our genes
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| Interpersonal functions of emotion (“within person”) | ways in which emotions directly benefit the reproductive fitness of the individual experiencing the emotion
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| Emotions are “Functional” | rom an evolutionary perspective → a characteristic is functional only if it leads to increased representation of your genes in future generations
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| Functionality | 1. survive
2. reproduce
3. help genetic relative survive/ reproduce
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| Emotions are “Adaptations” | 1. Individuals w/ emotions had more offspring than individuals without emotions/ took better care of their genetic relatives
2. genes supporting emotions spread in future generations to become typical in humans
3. Genes capacity to experience emotions
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| Relationship between motivation/ emotion | emotions often act as the driving force behind motivation, influencing direction/ intensity of our actions towards achieving goals; emotions provide the “feeling” component that propels us to act, while motivation is the internal drive to pursue
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| Basic / discrete emotions | emotional experience, such as fear, anger, and sadness, thought to have evolved in response to specific kinds of threats and opportunities
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| Core affect | emphasis on subjective feeling as the defining aspect of emotion
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| Amae (japanese term) | feeling of pleasurable dependence on another person, like the feeling an infant has toward its mother
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| Cultural priming: | experimental manipulation that makes one of bicultural person’s cultural identities especially salient for a short period of time
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