LIFESPAN - Ch1
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| Development | pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span; involves growth and decline; lifelong
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| Traditional Approach | change from birth to adolescence
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| Lifespan Approach | childhood and adulthood up through death
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| Lifespan | based on oldest age documented; Currently 122 years
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| Life Expectancy | average number of years that a person can expect to live; Currently 78 years
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| Life-Span Perspective | life-long, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, contextual
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| multidimensional | biological, social & sociocultural factors
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| multidirectional | balancing gains & losses
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| plastic | adaptation to optimize performance
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| contextual | families, schools, peers, churches, cities, etc.
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| development process | growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss
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| how is development constructed? | biological, sociocultural, and individual factors
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| Developmental Changes | a Result of Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
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| 3 types of influences of contextual development | Normative age-graded influences, Normative history-graded influences, Non-normative life events
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| Normative age-graded influences | similar for individuals in a particular age group
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| Normative history-graded influences | common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances, requires a shift in society
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| Non-normative life events | unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life
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| Culture | behavior patterns, beliefs, art, customs & all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation
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| Ethnicity | cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language
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| Socioeconomic Status | person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
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| Gender | characteristics of people as males and females, not biology
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| Prenatal | Conception to Birth; period is marked by constant and significant change. All of the major biological systems develop and cognitive capacities are formed. The organism develops into an infant ready for birth.
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| Infancy | 0-2 years; characterized by changes in physical ability, social skills, cultural assimilation and maturation. Language, symbolic thought, social learning and sensorimotor coordination are predominant at this stage.
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| Early childhood | 2-6; This period is sometimes called, the “school years.” During this period, the child becomes more independent, perfects language skills and learns tasks to prepare for life. Play is very important at this stage.
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| Middle childhood | 6-12; During this period the child is learning the fundamentals of reading, writing, math, and specifics about culture. Achievement, competition and self control become more significant during this period of development
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| Adolescence | 12-18; transition between childhood and adulthood; biologically transition through continual and consistent hormonal changes, as well as dramatic increases in height and weight and development of sex characteristics that that will prepare the child for re
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| Early adulthood | 18-40; period of establishing oneself in the world; individual is predominantly building a career, selecting a mate, beginning a family, and establishing economic freedom.
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| Middle adulthood | 40-65; time of expanding social relationships, preparing the next generation to become competent individuals, expanding on intimate relationships, and reaching and maintaining a career.
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| Late adulthood | 65+; period of adjustment to a decline in health and physical ability, new social and life roles, and retirement. Longest developmental period
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| Nature vs. Nurture | extent to which development is influenced by biological inheritance and/or environmental experiences
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| Stability | traits and characteristics are seen as the result of heredity and early life experiences
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| Change | traits and characteristics can be altered by later experiences
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| Continuity | gradual, cumulative change
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| Discontinuity | set of distinct stages
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| Psychoanalytic Theories | describe development as primarily unconscious
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| Freudian Psychosexual Stages | Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
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| Oral stage | birth-15 months; sucking and feeding
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| Anal stage | 12-18 months to 3 years; potty training
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| Phallic stage | 3 to 6 years; exploration of Genitals, Oedipus Complex
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| Latency stage | 6 years to puberty; calm years, Socialization
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| Genital stage | puberty to adult; Mature Adult Sexuality, Intimacy
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| Freudian Parts of Personality | Id: pleasure priciple Ego: reality principle Super-Ego: follows rules of society
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| Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 8 stages | Integrity vs despair (late adult; 60's +); Generativity vs stagnation (Mid-adult; 40s and 50s); Intimacy vs Isolation (Early adult; 20s and 30s); Identity vs Identity confusion (adolescence; 10-20); Industry vs inferiority (mid and late childhood); Initia
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| Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory | desire to affiliate with other people; eight stages of development Each stage comprises a crisis that must be resolved
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| Piaget’s Cognitive Theory | Sensorimotor (birth-2); Preoperational (3-7); Concrete operational (7-11); Formal operation (11-adult)
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| Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory | Emphasizes the processes of organization (assimilation) and adaptation to form Schemas; Four stages of cognitive development in children
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| Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory | Emphasizes how social interaction and culture guide cognitive development; Less-skilled persons learn from those who are more skilled
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| Zone of Proximal Development | gap between what you can do on your own and what you can do with assistance
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| Scaffolding | giving the “just right level” of assistance
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| Information-Processing Theory | Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it
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| Behaviorism | we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured
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| Skinner’s Operant Conditioning | Consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence; A reward increases likelihood of behavior; A punishment decreases likelihood of behavior
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| Punisher | painful or threateing
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| Reinforcer | Pleasurable; Primary reinforcers (food); Secondary reinforcers (money, praise)
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| Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory | Behavior, environment, and cognition are key factors in development
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| Ethology | stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology and evolution
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| Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory | development reflects the influence of five environmental systems; Microsystem: setting in which the individual lives; Mesosystem: relations between microsystems; Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active rol
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| Ecological Theory | Psychoanalytical, cognitive, behavioral and social cognitive, ethological, ecological
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| Methods for Collecting Data | Observation: Laboratory: controlled setting that eliminates many complex “real-world” variables Naturalistic: observing behavior in real-world settings
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| Survey and Interviews | Standard sets of questions are used to obtain people’s attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic
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| Standardized Test | Uniform procedures for administration and scoring
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| Case Studies | In-depth look at a single individual
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| Physiological Measures | Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): uses electromagnetic waves to construct images of brain tissue and biochemical activity
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| Research Designs | Three main types: descriptive, correlational, and experimental
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| Descriptive | aims to observe and record behavior
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| Correlational | describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
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| Correlation Coefficient | a number based on a statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables Ranges from +1.00 to -1.00 + means a positive association; - means a negative association Higher number indicates a stronger association
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| Experiment | carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant; cause and effect
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| Independent Variable | manipulated, influential, experimental factor
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| Dependent Variable | a factor that can change in an experiment, in response to changes in the independent variable
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| Experimental Group | a group whose experience is manipulated
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| Control Group | a comparison group whose experience is not manipulated
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| Random Assignment | researchers assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance Reduces the likelihood of preexisting differences between groups
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| Time Span Research | Cross-Sectional: simultaneously compares individuals of different ages Longitudinal Approach: studies the same individuals over a period of time, usually several years or more
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| Cohort Effects | Cohort: a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar experiences. Rule of Thumb: Anyone born 5 years ahead of you or 5 years behind you. Cohort effects: differences due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation, bu
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