biological psycholo
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| biological psychology | the study of the bioloical bases of psychological processes and behaviors.
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| neuroscience | the study of the nervous system.
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| behavioral neuroscience | the field of study concerned with the ways in which nervous system activity manifests in behavior.
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| conserved | In the context of evolution, referring to a trait that is passed on from a common ancestor to 2 or more decendant species
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| ontogeny | the process by which an individual changes in the course of it's life time - that is, grows up and grows old.
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| neuron | also called the nerve cell, the basic unit of the nervous system.
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| somatic intervention | an approach to finding relations between body variables and behavioral variables that involves manipulating body structure or function and looking for resultant changes in behavior
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| independant variable | the factor that is manipulated by the experimenter.
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| dependant variable | the factor that an experimenter measures to monitor a change in response to changes in an independant variable.
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| behavioral intervention | an approach to finding relations between body variables and behavioral variables that involves invtervening in the behavior of an organism and looking for resultant changes in body structure or function.
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| correlation | the covariation of two measures.
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| neural plasticity | also called neuroplasticity, the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment.
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| dualism | the notion, promoted by Descartes, that the mind is subject only to spiritual interactions, while the body is subject only to material interactions.
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| phrenology | the belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral faculties.
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| conciousness | the state of awareness of one's own existance and experience.`
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| histology | the study of tissue structure.
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| gross neuroanatomy | anatomical features of the nervous system that are apparent to the naked eye.
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| neurophysiology | the study of the life process of neurons.
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| chemical neuroanatomy | the distribution of key chemicals, such as transmitters and enzymes, within the structure of the nervous system.
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| neuropharmacology | also called psychpharmacology, the study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system and behavior.
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| neuron or nerve cell | the basic unit of the nervous system, each composed of a cell body, receptive extension(s) (dendrites), and a transmitting extension (axon).
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| neuron doctrine | the hypothesis that the brain is composed of seperate cells that are distinct structurally, metabolically and functionally.
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| synapse | a cellular location at which information is transmitted from one neuron to another.
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| glial cells | also called glia or neuroglia, nonneural brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support to the brain.
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| mitocondrion | a cellular organelle that provides metabolic energy for the cell's processes.
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| cell nucleus | the spherical central structure of a cell that contains the chromosomes.
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| ribosomes | structures in the cell body where genetic information is translated (protiens are produced).
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| dendrite | one of the extensions of the cell body that are the receptice surfaces of the neuron.
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| input zone | the part of the neuron that recieves information, from other neurons or from specialized sensory structures. usually corresponds to the cell's dendrites.
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| cell body or soma | the region of a neuron that is defined by the presence of the cell nucleus.
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| integration zone | the part of the neuron that initiates nerve activity if the sum of all inhibitory and excitatory post synaptic potentials exceeds a threshold value. Usually corresponds to the neuron's axon hillock.
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| axon | a single extension from the nerve cell that carries nerve impulses from the cell body to other neurons.
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| conduction zone | the part of the neuron over which the nerve's electrical signal may be actively propageted. Usually corresponds to the cell's axon.
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| axon terminal | the end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse on a neuron or other target.
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| output zone | the part of a neuron, usually corresponding to the axon terminals, at which the cell's electrical activity is conveyed to another cell.
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| multipolar region | a nerve cell that has many dendrites and a single axon.
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| bipolar neuron | a nerve cell that has a single dendrite at one end and a single ax`on at the other end.
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| monoploar neuron | a nerve with a single brance that leaves the cell body and then extends in 2 directions: one end is the receptive pole, and the other end the output zone.
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| motoneuron | also called a motor neuron, a nerve cell in the spinal cord that transmits motor messages from the spinal cord to muscles.
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| sensory neuron | a neuron that is directly affected by changes in the environment, such as light, odor or touch.
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| interneuron | a neuron that is neither a sensory neuron nor a motoneuron; it receives input from and sends output to other neurons.
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| astrocyte | a star-shaped glial cell with numerous processes (extensions) that run in all directions.
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| Golgi stain | a hitorical stain that fills a small proportion of neurons with a dark silver-based precipitate.
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| Nissl Stain | a historical stain that outlines all cell bodies because the dyes are attracted to RNA, which encircles the nucleus.
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| autoradiography | a histological technique that shows the distribution of radioactive chemicals in tissues.
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| immunocytochemistry (ICC) | a method for detecting a particular protien in tissues in which 1) an antibody recognizes and binds to the protien and 2) chemical methods are then used to leave a visible reaction product around each antibody.
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| in situ hybridization | a method for detection particular RNA transcripts in tissue sections by providing a neucletide probe that is complementary to, and wil therefore hybridize with, the transcript of interest.
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| immediate early genes (IEGS | a class of genes that show rapid but transient increases in expression in cells that have become activated.
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| c-fos | an immediate early gene commonly used to identify activated neurons.
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| horseradish peroxidase (HRP) | an enzyme found in horseradish and other plants that is used to determine the cells of origin of a particular set of axons.
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| microglial cells | also called microglia, extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells.
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| myelin | the fatty isulation around an axon, formed by accessory cells, that improves the speed of conduction of nerve impulses.
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| myelination | the process of myelin formation.
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| node of Ranvier | a gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where axon membrane is exposed.
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| multiple sclerosis | literally meaning "many scars"; a disorder characterized by widespread degeneration of myelin.
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| oligodendrocyte | a type of glial cell that is commonly associated with nerve cell bodies.
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| Schwann cell | the accessory cell that forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
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| edema | the swelling of tissue, especially in the brain, in response to injury.
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| arborization | the elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons.
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| presynaptic | referring to the region of a synaps that releases neurotransmitter.
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| postsynaptic | referring to the region of a synapse that recieves and responds to neurotransmitter.
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| presynaptic membrane | the specialized membrane of the axon terminal of the neuron that transmits information by releasing the neurotransmitter.
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| postsynaptic membrane | the specialized membrane on the surface of the cell that recieves information from a presynaptic neuron.
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| synaptic cleft | the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements
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| synaptic vesicle | a small, spherical structure that contains molecules of synaptic transmitter.
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| neurotransmitter | also a synaptic transmitter, chemical transmitter or transmitter, the chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal, that serves as the basis of communication between neurons.
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| receptor | also called a receptor molecule, a protien that captures and reacts to molecules of a transmitter or hormone.
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| dendritic spin | an outgrowth along the dendrite of a neuron.
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| neural plasticity | also called neuroplasticity, the ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment
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| axon hillock | a cone-shaped area from which the axon originates out of the cell body.
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| axon collateral | a brance of an axon from a single neuron.
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| axonal transport | the transportation of materials from the neuron cell body to distant regions in the dendrites and axons, and from the axon terminals to the cell body.
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| peripheral nervous system | the portion of the nervous system that includes all the nerves and neurons outside the brain and the spinal cord.
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| central nervous system (CNS) | the portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord.
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| nerve | a collection of axons bundled together outside the central nervous system.
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| cranial nerve | a nerve that is connected directly to the brain.
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| spinal nerve | also called somatic nerve, a nerve that emerges from the spinal cord.
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| autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that supplies neural connections to glands and to smoothe muscles of internal organs.
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| dorsal root | the brace if a spinal nerve, entering the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, that carries sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord.
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| venral root | the brance of a spinal nerve, arising from the ventral horn of the spinal cord, that carries motor messages from the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system.
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| cervical | referring to the topmost 8 segments below the spinal cord, in the neck region.
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| thoracic | referring to the 12 spinal segments below the cervical (neck) portion of the spinal cord, corresponding to the chest.
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| lumbar | referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the upper part of the lower back.
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| sacral | referring to the 5 spinal segments that make up the lower part of the lower back
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| coccygeal | referring to th lowest spinal vertebra (also known as the tailbone).
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| autonomic ganglia | collections of nerve cell bodies, belonging to the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system, that are found in various locations and innervate the major organs.
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| preganglionic | "before the ganglion", referring to the neurons in the autonomic division that run from the autonomic ganglia to various targets in the body.
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| postganglionic | "after the ganglion", referrin to neurons in the autonomic nervous system that run from the central nervous system to the autonomic ganglia.
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| sympathetic nervous system | one of two systems that compose the autonomic nervous system. arises from the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord.
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| sympathetic chain | a chain of ganglia that runs along each side of the spinal column; part of the sympathetic nervous system.
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| parasympathetic nervous system | one of two systems that compose the autonomic nervous system. arises from both the cranial nerves and the sacral spinal cord.
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| enteric nervous system | a extensive meshlike system of neurons that governs the functon of th the gut.
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| cerebral hemispheres | the right and left halves of the forebrain.
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| gyrus | a ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.
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| sulcus | a furrow of a convoluted brain surface.
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| frontal lobe | th most anterior portion of the cerebral cortex.
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| parietal lobes | large regions of cortex lying between the front and occipital lobes of each cerebral hemisphere.
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| temporal lobes | large lateral cortical regions of each cerebral hemispheres continuous of the parietal lobes posteriorly, and seperated from the frontal lobe by the sylvian fissure.
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| occipital lobes | large regions of cortex covering much of the posterior part of eache cerebral hemisphere.
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| Sylvian fissure | a deep fissure that demarcates the temperal lobe.
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| central sulcus | a fissure that divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
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| cerebral cortex | the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres.
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| postcentral gyrus | the strip of parietal cortex, just behind the central sulcus that recieves somatosensory information from the entire body.
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| precentral gyrus | the strip of frontal cortex, just in front of the central sulcus, that is crucial to motor control.
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| corpus collosum | the main band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres.
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| white matter | a shiny layer underneath the cortex that consists largely of axons with white myelin sheaths.
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| grey matter | areas of the brain that are dominated by cell bodies and are devoid of myelin.
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| neural tube | an embryonic structure with subdivisions that correspond to the future forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
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| forebrain | also called the prosencephalon, the frontal division of the neural tube, containing the cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
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| midbrain | also called the mesencephalon, the middle division of the brain.
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| hindbrain | also called the rhombcephalon, the rear division of the brain, which, in the mature vertabrate, contains the cerebellum, pons and medulla.
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| telencephalon | the fronal subdivision of the forebrain that includes the cerebral hemispheres when fully developed.
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| diencephalon | the posterior part of the forebrain, including the thalimus and the hypothalimus.
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| metencephaon | a subdivision of the hindbran that includes the cerebellum and the pons.
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| cerebellum | a structure located at the back of the brain, dorsal to the pons, that is involved in the central regulation of movement.
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| pons | a portion of the metencephalon.
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| myelencephalon or medulla | the caudal part of the hindbrain.
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| brainstem | the region of the brain that consists of the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.
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| nucleus | here, an anatomical collection of neurons within the central nervous system.
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| tract | a bundle of axons found within the central nervous system.
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| basal ganglia | a group of forebrain nuclei (caudate nucleus, globus pallidus and putamen)found deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
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| caudate nucleus | one of the basal ganglia; it has a long extension or tail.
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| putamen | one of the basal ganglia.
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| globus palladis | one of the basal ganglia.
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| substantia nigra | a brainstem structure in humans thatis related to the basal ganglia and named for it's dark pigmentation.
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| limbic system | a losely defined, widespread group of brain nuclei that innervate eachother to form a network.
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| amygdala | a group of nuclei in the medial anterior part of the temperal lobe.
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| hippocampus | a medial temporal lobe structure that is thought to be important for learning and memory.
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| fornix | a fiber tract that extends from the hippocampus to the mammillary body.
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| cingulate gyrus | a critical portion of the lymbic system, found in the frontal and parietal midline.
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| olfactory bulb | an anterior basal structure that recieves olfactory (smell) imputs from the nasal cavaties.
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| mammilllary body | one of the pair of nuclei at the base of the brain.
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| thalamus | the brain regions that surround the third ventricle.
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| hypothalamus | part of the diencephalon, lying ventral to the thalamus.
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| superior colliculi | paired structures on the dorsal surface of the midbrain, rostral to the inferior colliculi that recieve visual information.
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| inferior colliculi | paired structures on the dorsal surface of the midbrain, caudal to the superior colliculi, that recieve auditory information.
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| tectum | the dorsal portion of the midbrain, including the inferior and superior colliculi.
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| red nucleus | a brainstem structure related to motor control.
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| reticular fromation | an extensive region of the brainstem (extending from the medulla throught the thalamus)that is involved in arousal.
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| Purkinje Cell | a type of large nerve cell in the cerebellar cortex.
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| granule cell | a type of small nerve cell.
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| parallel fiber | on of the axons of the granule cells that form the outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex.
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| isocortex (or cortex) | cerebral cortex that is made up of 6 distinct layers (formerly referred to as the neocortex).
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| allocortex | brain tissue with 3 layers or unlayered organization.
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| pyramidal cell | a type of large nerve cell that has a roughly pyramidal-shaped cell body; found in the cerebral cortex.
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| apical dendrite | the dendrite that extends from a pyramidal cell to the outermost surface of the cortex.
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| basal dendrite | one of several dendrites on a pyramidal cell that extend horizontally from the cell body.
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| cortical column | one of the vertical columsn that constitute the basic organization of the isocortex.
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| meninges | the 3 protective sheets of tissue-dura mater, pia matter, and arachnoid-that surround the brain and spinal cord.
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| dura mater | the outermost of the 3 meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord.
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| pia mater | the inntermost of the 3 meninges that surround the brain and the spinal cord.
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| arachnoid | the thin covering(one of the 3 meninges) of the brain that lies between the dura mater and pia mater.
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| cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | th fluid that fills the cerebral ventricles.
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| meningitis | an acut inflamation of the meninges, usually caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
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| ventricular system | a system of fluid filled cavities inside the brain.
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| lateral ventricle | a complexly shaped lateral portion of the ventricular system within each hemisphere of the brain.
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| choroid plexus | a highly vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles that secretes cerebrospinal fluid.
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| third ventricle | the midline ventricle that conducts cerebrospinal fluid from the lateral ventricles to the 4th ventricle.
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| fourth ventricle | the passageway within the pons that recieves cerebrospinal fluid from the 3rd ventricle and releases it to surround the brain and spinal cord.
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| carotid arteries | the major arteries that ascend the left and right sides of the neck to the brain.
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| anterior cerebral arteries | two large arteries, arising frim the internal carotids, that provide blood to the anterior poles and medial surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres.
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| middle cerebral arteries | two large arteries, arising frm the internal carotids, that provide blood to most of the lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres.
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| vertebral arteries | arteries that ascend the vertabrae, enter the base of the scull, and jointogether to form the basilar artery.
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| basilar artery | an artery formed by the fusion of the bertebral arteris, that supples blood to the brainstem nd to posterior portions of the cerebral hemispheres.
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| posterior cerebral arteries | two large arteries, arising from the basilar artiery, that provide blood to the branstem and to posterior aspects of the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum and brainstem.
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| circle of Willis | a structureat the base of the brain that is formed by the joining of carotid and basilar arteries.
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| stroke | damage to a region of the brain tissue that results from blockage or rupture of vessels that supply blood to that region.
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| blood-brain barrier | the mechanisms that make the movement of substances from capillaries into brain cells more difficult than exchanges in other body organs.
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| angiogram | a specialized x-ray image of thehad, taked shortly after the cerebral blood vessels hae ben filled with a radiopaque dye by means of a catheter.
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| computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) | a oninvasive technique for examining brain structure in humans through computer analysis of X-ray absorption at several positions around the head
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| magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | a noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate images that reveal some structural details in the living brain.
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| position emission tomography (PET) | a technique for examining brain function by combining tomography with injections of radioactive substances used by the brain.
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| functional MRI (fMRI) | magnetic resonance imaging that deects changes in blood flow and therefore identifies regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task.
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| optical imaging | a method for visualizing brain activity in which near-infared light is passed through the scalp and scull.
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| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) | localized, noninvasive stimulation of cortical neurons through the application of strong magnetic fields.
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| magnettoencephalography (MEG) | a passive and noninvasive functional brainimaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields produced by active neurons, in order to identify regions of the brain that are particularly active during a given task.
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| ion | an atom or molecule that has aquired an electrical charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons.
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| anion | a negatively charged ion, such as a protien or chloride ion.
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| cation | a positively charged ion, suc as a potassium or sodium ion.
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| intracellular fluid | also called cytoplasm, the watery solution found within cells.
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| extracellular fluid | the fluid in the spaces between cells (interstitial fluid) and in the vascular system.
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