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Psych Part 3
AP Psych Chapters 7 and 8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| memory | a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information |
| how is memory related to a cognitive system | memory works closely with perceptual systems, it takes information from the senses and selectively converts it into meaningful patterns that can be stored and access later when needed |
| what is the process of memory referred to | the information processing model |
| information processing model | cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how info is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved |
| encoding | select some stimulus from among a vast array of sensory information that assaults you. find some pattern with it and then tag it |
| storage | retention of encoded material over time |
| retrieval | properly encoded info, takes only a second to retrieve with good cues. retrieval doesn't always word, for example if memory wasn't encoded right or stored in the wrong section |
| process of memory | sensory, working, long-term |
| sensory memory | holds sensory information for split seconds to see if it is important enough to move it onto to working memory |
| working memory | takes information selectively from sensory memory and connects it with items already in long term storage. it is essentially work table that adds perception to material being consciously payed attention to |
| long term memory | final stage of processing, receives information from working memory and stores it |
| storage capacity of the stages types of memories | sensory- 12-16 items. working- 7+ chunks. long term- unlimited |
| duration of the three stages of memories | sensory- less than 1/2 second. working- 20-30 seconds. long term- unlimited |
| structures of the three stages of memories | sensory- different parts of the brain due to dependence on senses. working- central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial. long term- procedural and declarative. |
| biological basis for the three stages of memory | sensory-separate sensory pathways. working memory- hippocampus, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe. long term-cerebral cortex. |
| chunking | organization pieces of information into smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks). a process that frees up space in working memory |
| sensory register | a register holding different kind of sensory information |
| what senses do: iconic, echoic, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory sensory memory register? | iconic- visual. echoic- auditory. tactile- tough. olfactory- smell. gustatory- taste. |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and consciou effort. |
| hierarchies | arrange concepts (mental representations of relating things) from more general to specific |
| maintenance rehearsal | working memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. |
| elaborative rehearsal | a working memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in long term memory |
| eeidetic imagery | an especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare; sometimes known as a "photographic" memory |
| structural encoding | remembering physical structures of stimuli |
| acoustic (phonemic) encoding | remembering by emphasizing the sound of the stimuli |
| visual codes | remembering by emphasizing the visual imagery presented |
| semantic codes | remembering by emphasizing the meaning of the stimuli |
| levels of processing theory | the explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long term memory will be remembered better |
| procedural memory | type of long term memory that stores memories of things are done |
| declarative memory | type of long term memory that is for information that we can describe-the facts we know or the experiences we remember |
| declarative memory has what other types of memory within it | semantic and episodic |
| semantic memory | memory that stores general knowledge and concepts |
| episodic memory | memory that stores personal events or "episodes" |
| anterograde amnesia | the inability to form memories of new information |
| retrograde amnesia | inability to remember information previously stored in memory |
| consolidation | process by which short term memories are changed to long term memories over a period of time |
| implicit memory | a memory that was deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness |
| explicity memory | memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled |
| retrieval cues | stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior |
| priming | a technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory |
| recall | a retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information |
| recognition | a retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented |
| encoding specificity principle | the doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed. the more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered |
| mood-congruent memory | a memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one's mood |
| Tip of the Tongue phenomenon | the inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory. |
| transience | the impermanence of a long term memory. it is based on the idea that long term memories gradually fade in strength over time |
| forgetting curve | a graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material. typical curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes one |
| absent mindedness | forgetting caused by lapse in attention |
| blocking | forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved |
| blocking is caused by | interference |
| proactive interference | a cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information |
| retroactive interference | a cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material |
| what can cause interference | the greater the similarity between two sets of material to be learned the greater the interference between them (learning french and spanish. meaningless material is more vulnerable to interference than meaningful material. and emotional material. |
| serial position effect | a form of interference related to the sequence in which information is represented. generally items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last. |
| mnemonics | techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long term memory |
| innateness theory of language | children acquire language not merely by imitating but also by following an inborn program of steps to acquire the vocab and grammar of the language in their environment |
| language acquisition device | a biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar |
| babbling stage | early stage of language development, occurring between 3-4 months, when children make nonsensical unrelated sounds |
| One-word Stage | the stage where children mainly speak in one word |
| Two-word Stage | at approximately around the age of 2, children start speaking in two word sentences. |
| Syntax | the rules specify how words should be ordered in a sentence in order to give that sentence meaning |
| Semantics | branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning |
| Phoneme | smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning |
| Telegraphic Speech | speech that sounds like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense and contains almost all nouns and verbs |
| Linguistic Determinism | the idea that language shapes cognition and thought. |
| Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis | a hypothesis that language determines our character and the way we think. we are shaped by the language around us and therefore so is our character |
| concepts | mental representations of categories of tiems or ideas, based on experience |
| schema | a knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one's life |
| script | a cluster of knowledge about sequence of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings |
| algorithms | problem solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied |
| heuristics | cognitive strategies of rules of thumb used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks. do not guarantee a correct solution |
| mental set | the tendency to respond to anew problem in the manner used for previous problem |
| functional fixedness | the inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a form of mental set |
| hindisght bias | the tendency after learning about an event to second guess or believe that one could have predicted the event in advance |
| anchoring bias | a faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on completely unrelated quantity |
| representativeness bias | a faulty heuristic strategy based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category |
| convergent thinking | style of thought that attempts to consider all available information and arrive at the single best possible answer. |
| divergent thinking | thinking that moves away in diverging direction so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes lead to new ideas and concepts |
| representative heuristics | a cognitive bias in which an individual categorizes a situation based on pattern of previous experiences or beliefs about the scenario |
| availability heuristics | how easily something that you’ve seen or heard can be accessed in your memory. the sooner you've seen/heard something the sooner you remember and use it |
| emotions | a four part process that involves physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretations, and behavioral expression, all of which interact. rather than occurring in linear sequence. help organisms deal with important events |
| display rules | the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society |
| universal expression of emotions | facial language/expression are universal although culture decides when we express them |
| 7 universal facial expressions | anger, contempt, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear |
| lateralization of emotion | different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. left hemisphere apparently influences positive emotions and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions |
| physiological arousal type of response | neural, hormonal, visceral, and muscular changes |
| subjective feelings type of response | the private experience of one's internal affective state |
| cognitive interpretation type of response | attaching meaning to the emotional experience by drawing on memory and perceptual processes |
| social/behavioral reactions | expressing emotion through gestures, facial expressions, or other actions |
| james lang theory | emotion is a product of physiological response. stimulus produces a physical response that in turn produces an emotion |
| cannon-bard theory | emotion is part of the physiological response. they both occur at the same time |
| two factor theory (schachter-singer) | emotions result from an evaluation of the cognitive appraisal and physical arousal |
| cognitive appraisal | individual decide on an appropriate emotional response |
| opponent process theory | emotions have pairs. when one is triggered the other is surpressed |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to understand and control emotional response |
| motivation | all the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities |
| drive | biologically instigated motivation |
| motive | an internal mechanisms that selects and directs behavior. |
| uses for motivation | connects observable behavior to internal state (hunger = social pressure or drive), accounts for differences in behavior (intensity), explains perseverance despite adversity, relates bio to behavior |
| intrinsic motivation | desire to engage in an activity for its own sake. internal pleasure |
| extrinsic motivation | desire to engage in an activity to achieve and external consequence, a reward |
| conscious motivation | having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of that desire |
| unconscious motivation | having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire. |
| drive reduction theory | helps us meet biological needs. motivates to take action in order to reduce the tension |
| arousal theory | seek optimum level of excitement and arousal |
| yerkes dodson law | performance increases with physiological or mental arousal but only to a point. when arousal becomes too high, performance decreases |
| incentive theory | rewards and punishments |
| cognitive dissonance | motivates us to have consistent thoughts and behaviors. when those do not meet, individuals experience unpleasant mental tensions. hypocrite |
| hierarchy of needs. maslow's theory | biological needs, safety needs, attachment and affiliation needs, esteem needs, and then self-actualization |
| approach-approach conflict | choosing between two good options |
| approach avoidance conflict | a conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made |
| avoidance avoidance conflict | lesser of two evils |
| multiple approach-avoidance conflict | must choose between options that have both many attractive and negative aspects. |
| fixed action pattern | genetically based behaviors seen across a species that can be set off by a specific stimuli |
| need | biological imbalance that threatens survival |
| need for achievment | mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal |
| set point | tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight |
| sexual response cycle | four stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution in both men and women |
| Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis | The hypothesis that frustration leads to aggressive behavior. Frustration develops when an aggressor is unable to attain a goal |
| instinct theory | we do things based on instinctual urges |
| stress | a physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation |
| stressor | a stressful stimuli |
| general adaption syndrome | pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor |
| alarm reaction | first stage of GAS which the body mobilizes its resources to cope with stressor |
| resistance | second stage of GAS during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with stressor |
| exhaustion | third stage of GAS during which body depletes its resources in responding to ongoing stressor |
| type a personality | intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic characteristics |
| type b personality | relaxed and unstressed |
| learned helplessness | pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after and organism learns its responses are ineffective |
Created by:
LittleD331
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