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AP PSYCH
CH 10 Life Span Development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Developmental Psychology: | study of the changes that occur in people from birth through old age. Human development is characterized by both major life transitions & continuities with the past. |
| Katherine Graham: | She took over the Washington Post, after her husband died of alcohol abuse |
| Cohort: | : a group of people born during the same period in historical time, ex: generation X. |
| Cohort Effect: | difference in individuals due to date of birth (a problem) |
| Cohort Differences: | differences between individuals from the fact that they were born & grew up at different historical times. • Ex: if 40 year olds could solve math problems than 80 year olds, we wouldn’t know whether this result was due to the difference from CD . |
| Cross-Sectional Study: | : A method of studying developmental changes by testing people of different ages at the same time. |
| Cross-Sectional Study CONT: | •ADV: inexpensive, takes little time to complete, avoids high attrition(drop out) rate from the study •DISADV: different age groups are not necessarily very much alike, differences across age groups may be due to cohort differences rather than age. |
| Longitudinal Study: | testing some people two or more times as they grow older, typically will start with say a 20 year old. |
| Longitudinal Study CONT: | •Advantages: generates detailed info about individuals, allows for the study of developmental change in great detail, eliminates differences due to different cohorts. |
| Longitudinal Study CONT: | •Disadvantages: costly, time consuming, potential for high attrition(drop out ) rate, differences over time may be due to differences in assessment tools rather than age. |
| Biographical AKA retrospective Study: | : begins at end of time frame & reconstructs life backwards to find the answer. May start at say a 70 year old |
| More on Retrospective Study: | •Advantages: generates rich detail about one individual’s life, allows for in-depth study of one individual • Disadvantages: individual’s recall often untrustworthy, can be very time consuming, & expensive. |
| Neonates: | newborn babies |
| Prenatal Development: | Development from conception to birth. |
| Zygote: | a diploid cell resulting for the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum. |
| Embryo: | A developing human between 2 weeks & 3 months after conception. |
| Fetus: | 1 inch long at this point, it’s a developing human between 3 months after conception & birth. It has limbs, a large head, & a beating heart. |
| Placenta: | The organ which a Z, E, or F is attached to its mother’s uterus & that nourishes it during prenatal development. |
| Teratogens: | Although the moms blood never crosses into the placenta, Teratogens will. They’re toxic substances such as alcohol/or nicotine that cross the placenta & may result in birth defects. |
| Critical Period: | worst time for harmful substances to go to the fetus, because they will have the most major effect on the fetus. |
| More on Critical Period: | •The same substances may have no effect on a baby once the critical period has passed. • Critical period can occur after prenatal development in muscles and brain development in the fetal stage. |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome(FAS): | ): Baby has a condition w/facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, & cognitive impairments when the mom drinks large amounts of alcohol. Even small amounts of alcohol can cause neurological defects in a baby |
| Smoking: | restricts the oxygen supply to the fetus, slows its breathing, & speeds up its heart beat. Increases the miscarriage rate may cause over 100,000 miscarriages a year |
| More on Smoking: | As well as babies w/low birth weight which puts the child at risk for other developmental problems. |
| Rooting Reflex: | the reflex that causes a newborn baby to turn its head toward something that touches its cheek & to grope around w/its mouth. |
| Sucking Reflex: | The newborn baby’s tendency to suck on objects placed in the mouth. |
| Swallowing Reflex: | The reflex enables babies to swallow liquids w/out choking |
| Grasping Reflex: | causes newborns to close their fists around anything that’s put in their hands. |
| Stepping reflex: | causes babies to make little stepping motions if held upright w/their feet just touching a surface. |
| Temperament: | : Characteristic patterns of emotional reactions & emotional self-regulation that we are born with. |
| More on Temperament: | Ex: some cry a lot more than others, some love to be cuddled, etc. Created by Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess |
| Babies: | 3 types of babies:“easy” babies are good natured, adaptable, easy to care for, & please. |
| More on Babies: | “difficult” babies are moody & intense, reacts to new people & new situations both negatively & strongly. • “slow to warm up” babies are relatively inactive, slow to respond to new things & when they do react, their reactions are mild. |
| More on Babies: | “shy child” developed by Jerome Kagan, the key pioneer of Developmental Psych. He shown that an infants “temperament” can predict other behavioral patterns that appear in adolescence. Kagan discovered that babies in a new enviro w/new people=babies :( |
| Vision: | humans are born w/their eyes open & functioning, even though the world looks a bit fuzzy to them at first. |
| more on vision: | •They(babies) see most clearly when faces/objects are only 8-10 inches away from them. • Yellow, orange, red, black, white, and green, all other colors come by 4 months bc babies then have perception. |
| Vison CONT: | •Visual acuity(vision clarity) improves rapidly, however, & so does the ability to focus on objects at different distances. • By 6-8 months babies can see almost as well as the average college student, though their vision |
| more Vison, again: | •Takes 3-4 years to develop fully. •Babies would rather look at new pics than one they’ve seen many x's before. •If given a choice between two pics/patterns, both of which are new to them, they prefer the pic that is the most clear w/a simple pattern |
| more vision... | •As babies get older & their vision improves they prefer more & more complex patterns. •Infants find human faces/voices interesting, they will not only follow another person’s face but will also •Follow the other person’s gaze. |
| vision; | •Newborns prefer to look at their own mother rather than a stranger, bc they see the mother so often the baby has a few different images of her. • The visual familiarity makes the mother the preferred person in the environment. |
| Taste: | : babies love sweet flavors, which is why babies need the healthy foods first then sweets. |
| smells: | babies like what their parents like |
| depth perception: | Researchers have been unable to find evidence of DP in babies younger than 4 months, the ability to see the world in 3D dimensions is well developed by the time a baby learns to crawl, between 6-12 months |
| Babies do: | Withdrawal; cries, flexing of muscles ( you can see the abs, etc) to pain Eliminating: urinating & bowel movements( very tarry when first born) Crying, breathing, eye blink, imitate adult facial expressions |
| Visual Cliff: | : Babies won’t cross the deep side, even to reach their mothers, by the time babies can crawl, babies can also perceive depth. |
| Senses: | •Even before babies are born their ears work. • A fetus can hear sounds 7 will startle at loud noises in the environment |
| more on senses: | •After birth, babies show signs that they remember sounds they had heard while in the womb. • They can locate sounds in the dark, where there are no visual clues. |
| developmental norms: | Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones. |
| motor development: | Refers to the acquisition |
| Proximodistal Fashion: | :Motor development from nearest of the center of the body (proximal) to farthest from the center (distal) |
| maturation: | An automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of the passage of time. |
| Mental Representations: | Images or symbols ( such as words) used to think about or remember an object, person, or event. |
| Object permanence: | :The concept that things continue to exist even when they are out of sight |
| Jean Piaget (1896-1980): | Swiss psychologist, he believed that cognitive development is a way of adapting to the environment. Children are intrinsically motivated to explore & understand things. He has 4 stages of development: |
| Sensory-Motor stage 1: | : in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development between 0-2, in which the individual develops object permanence & acquires the ability to form mental representations |
| S-MS1: | •Thinking occurs at same speed as physical movement, • Object permanence develops: object permanence= things exist even when out of sight( playing hide and seek for ex, the child knows your under the blanket) |
| S-MS1: | •Stranger anxiety occurs •Self-recognition develops ( paint on nose mirror test , to see if the child can recognize its own reflection in a mirror as an image of itself) •Develops ability to form mental images, a few images but can’t do much w/ them |
| Pre-Operational Stage 2: | children’s thoughts are still bound to the physical & perceptual experiences. Mental representations & language to describe remember & reason about the world, though only in an egocentric fashion. |
| More on P-OS2: | •Ability to think in symbols •“magical-not logical” thinking • Animism: all objects have thoughts/feelings |
| even more on P-OS2: | Egocentric thinking: unable to see world from other people’s Point of View(POV) |
| P-OS2: | •Development of fantasy, play, & symbolic gestures • Don’t understand the principle of conservation |
| Concrete-Operational stage3: | between 7-11 years of age, in which the individual can attend to more than one thing at a time & understand someone else’s POV, though thinking is limited to concrete matters. |
| Formal-Operational Stage 4: | : between 11-15, in which the individual becomes capable of abstract thought. |
| Babbling: | A baby’s vocalizations, consisting of repetition of consonant-vowel combinations. |
| Language: | Deaf babies babbling occurs before baby is 10 months old w/their hands. Verbal babies at 4-6 months vocalizations begin to show signs of intonation. |
| Intonation: | Rising & lowering of pitch that allows adults to distinguish between questions and statements. |
| more on Intonation: | •Babies can learn the basic sounds of their native language & can distinguish them from sounds of other languages. • At 6months babies can recognize commonly used words such as their names as well as mommy and daddy. |
| Motherese: | “mother talk”, spoken slowly w/simple sentences, higher pitched voices, repetition, & exaggerated intonations. It helps engage the babies’ attention & help em to distinguish the sounds of their language. |
| Holophrases: | one-worded sentences used by children under age 2. So at 12months an ex: word is dada, at 1.5-2years its UP, OUT, etc. |
| more on Holophrases: | •Age 2-3 children omit auxiliary verbs & verb endings ex: (Can) “I have that?” kids focus on meaning |
| holophrases CONT: | •Age 3, child begins to form two & 3 word sentences such as “see daddy”, “my ball”, etc. • After age 3, kids fill their sentences & language production increases a lot. Ex: “nick school”, becomes “nick goes to school”. |
| holophrases even more info: | •Age 5-6 children have a vocabulary of over 2,500 words & can construct sentences of 6-8 words. Words/complexity of sentence structure is a good indicator of child’s level of language development. |
| B.F.Skinner: | he believed that if they infant said a word correctly(only time infants are praised) the mom/adult would reinforce those sounds w/say a smile. He thought that grammar understanding, word construction, etc were acquired in the same way. |
| Noam Chomsky: | He thinks children are born w/ a language acquisition device. |
| Language Acquisition Device: | a hypothetical neural mechanism for acquiring language that is presumed to be “wired into” humans. |
| more on the LAD: | •It would facilitate language learning/make it universal. • Children would understand the basic rules of grammar, to make sense of what they hear, & to form their own sentences. |
| LAD CONTINUED: | •It’s as if kids have an internal “map” of language. All the child has to do is fill in the blanks of the “map”. |
| Environment: | Without people to talk to, children are slow to pick up words & grammatical rules. |
| Environment CONt: | •Babies raised in places w/out smiling adults to reward their efforts, will babble like other children, but take much longer to begin talking than children reared in families. |
| More on Environment: | •The greater attention paid to first-born children may explain why these kids tend to be more advanced in lang. devel. Than their younger siblings. |
| At age 3: | a child’s relationship has expanded to include immediate family, playmates, & other children/adults outside the family. Their social world expands when they start school. |
| Imprinting: | Tendency in certain species to follow the first moving thing (usually its mother) it sees after it’s born/hatched. |
| more on Imprinting: | •Geese that have hatched in incubators have imprinted on decoys, mechanical toys, & even humans. • Geese will follow their human “mother” regardless if there is are adult mothers of their species. |
| Attachment: | Emotional bond that develops in the first year of life that makes human babies cling to their caregivers for safety & comfort. |
| more on Attachment: | •Signs of attachment are evident by the age of 6 months or even earlier. • At 7 months behavior becomes intense, the infant will reach out to be picked up by the caregiver |
| Even more on Attachment: | •Infant will cling to mom too especially when tired, scared, & or hurt. • Baby will become wary of strangers & will wail at even the friendliest approach by an unfamiliar person. |
| Attachment CONT: | •If separated for even a few minutes in an unfamiliar place, baby will become upset. |
| Basic Trust: | Developed by psychologist Erik Erickson, infant can count on caregiver to be there for at least 1 year. |
| more on Basic Trust: | •If needs are met, babies develop faith in other people & also in themselves, they see the world as a secure, dependable place & have optimism about their future. |
| Basic Trust CONT: | •In contrast, if babies’ needs aren’t met, from an absent/unresponsive caregiver, babies grow to be fearful/overly anxious about their own security. |
| Autonomy: | Sense of independence; a desire not to be controlled by others. Child knows the caregiver will be there when needed, so caregiver is a “secure base” from which to venture forth from. |
| more on Autonomy | •Opposite for insecure children, & if left in a strange place, child will cry/refuse comfort • Child will continue to cry even after mom returns, as well as push her away/ignore her. |
| Even more on Autonomy: | •Where as a secure 12month will likely to rush to the returning mother for a hug/words of reassurement & then happily play again. |
| Studies Show: | from 1-6 years old, that a baby who forms a secure attachment to their mom by age 12 months, tended to be at ease w/other children more interested in exploring new toys, & more enthusiastic/ persistent when presented w/new tasks. |
| Age 2: | Children assert their independence w/NO, parents start to discipline the child. This conflict between a parents need for peace/order for autonomy creates difficulties. But it’s a first step in socialization. |
| socialization: | The process by which children learn the behaviors & attitudes appropriate to their family & culture. |
| More on Erik Erickson: | Autonomy vs. shame & doubt, if toddle fails to acquire independence from others, self-doubt may occur. |
| Erik Erickson CONT: | •Child may have doubts about his/her ability to act effectively in the world. • If parents/other adults make the toddler feel unimportant, child may feel ashamed. |
| more on EE: | •Fortunately most young children/parents avoid this. • They negotiate to have a balance between autonomy & rules. |
| Age 3-6 Erickson: | : child will become more independent & make new plans while undertaking new projects. |
| Age 3-6 Erickson CONT: | •Parental encouragement of these initiatives leads to a sense of joy in taking on new tasks. • But if child is scolded & repeatedly criticized for things they do wrong, child may develop unworthines, guilt,& resentment |
| 3-6 Erickson CONT: | avoiding negativity is a major challenge |
| Diana Baumrind: she has 4 parenting styles | Authoritarian,Permissive-Indifferent,Permissive-Indulgent,Authoritative |
| Authoritarian: | control child’s behavior rigidly & insist on unquestioning obedience, child grows up to have poor communication skills, moody, withdrawn, & distrustful. |
| Permissive-Indifferent: | Parents exert too little control, don’t set limits on child’s behavior. The parents are neglectful/inattentive providing little emotional support to their children. Child becomes to dependent & lacks social skills/self-control. |
| Permissive-Indulgent: | Parents are very attentive & supportive of their children, but fail to set appropriate limits on their behavior. Child becomes immature, disrespectful, impulsive, and out of control. |
| Authoritative: | Represents the most successful parenting style, parents provide firm structure & guidance w/out being overly controlling |
| More on Authoritative: | They listen to their child’s opinions & give explanations for their decisions, but it’s clear that they are the ones who make/ enforce the rules. Parents who use this approach are mot likely to have children who are independent/socially responsible. |
| Solitary Play: | Child is engaged in a recreational activity alone; the earliest form of play |
| Parallel Play: | play side by side, doing the same/similar things, but not much w/each other. It’s the earliest kind of social interaction between toddlers. |
| Cooperative Play: | Age 3-3.5 two or more children are engaged in play that requires interaction. |
| Siblings: | : Among the first peers that most kids encounter. •Sibling relations are usually most compatible when other relationships within the family are good. •Siblings also influence one another indirectly, simply by order of birth. |
| Siblings CONT: | •Ist borns tend to be more anxious, fearful of physical injury, but also more intellectually able & more achievement oriented than their later-born siblings. |
| more info on siblings: | •Among boys, first borns tend to be more creative, these differences have to do w/extra attention( good & bad) that parents tend to give their first-born children. |
| Peer Group: | A network of same-aged friends/acquaintances who give one another emotional & social support. |
| Non-Shared Environment: | The unique aspects of the environment that are experienced differently by siblings even though they are raised in the same family. |
| Gender Identity: | a little girl’s knowledge that she is a girl, & a little boy’s knowledge that he is a boy. Occurs at age 3. |
| Gender Constancy: | The realization that gender doesn’t change w/age. Occurs at age 4-5 |
| Gender role awareness: | Knowledge of what behavior is appropriate for each gender. |
| Gender Stereotypes: | Gender beliefs about characteristics that men & women are pressured to have. |
| More on Gender Stereotypes: | Girls: are supposed to be neat, clean, careful, kind, caring, & emotional, whereas boys are supposed to be rough, noisy, physical play, strong, dominate, & aggressive. |
| Sex-typed behavior: | socially prescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys & girls. Behavior differences are minimal in infancy & quite major as children grow older. |
| Girls: | play w/dolls, put on pretty clothes, fuss w/hair, talk more, shove less, interact in pairs, aggression is displayed verbally. |
| boys: | play w/trucks, wrestle/physical, aggressive physically, tend to play in large groups. |
| Eleanor Macoby: | she thinks behavior stems from a biological origin. •She thinks its small biological differences first, then becomes exaggerated later bc of the different kinds of socialization experienced by boys & girls. |
| T.V. | :Children under the age of 2 shouldn’t watch TV at all. •Older children shouldn’t have T.V. sets in their bedrooms. |
| More on T.V. | •Children who watch 2+hours of T.V/day will see about 8,000 murders & 100,000 other acts of violence by the time they leave elementary school. •Even Sat morning cartoons average more than 20 acts of violence/hr. |
| T.V. CONT: | •Kids who watch TV violence are more aggressive than other children, & that their aggressive behavior will continue into adulthood. |
| Adolescence: | From 10-20 years, when a person transforms from a child into an adult, involves not just physical changes of a maturing body, but also many cognitive & social-emotional changes. |
| Growth Spurt: | A rapid increase in height & weight that occurs during adolescence. Typical person attains his/her adult height in about 6 years after the start of the GS. |
| puberty: | The onset of sexual maturation, w/accompanying physical development. |
| Menarche: | first menstrual period |
| David Elkind: | He is a child psychologist, he used Piaget’s notion of adolescent egocentrism( concerns more abstract thoughts/problems) to account for two mistaken beliefs of thought that David noticed in this age group. |
| More on David Elkind:Imaginary audience: | His term for adolescents’ delusion that they’re constantly being watched by others. |
| More on David Elkind:Personal Fable: | His term for adolescents’ delusion that they are unique, very important, & invulnerable. That negativity won’t affect them, for ex: the love for a boy is so special and that no one else could possibly understand the couples love. |
| Identity Formation: | Erikson’s term for the development of a stable sense of self necessary to make the transition from dependence on others such as mom and dad to independence. |
| James Marcia: | Believes that finding an identity requires a period of intense self exploration/decision making(Identity crisis, IC); part of identity formation. There are 4 possible outcomes of this process |
| Identity Achievement:1/4 | Person has passed the IC & has succeeded in making personal choices about their beliefs & goals. They’re comfortable w/these choices bc it’s theirs. |
| Identity Foreclosure:2/4 | Person has settled on an identity that others have provided for them(such as parents) they have become what others want them to be w/out ever going through an IC. |
| Moratorium:3/4 | Regarding the choice of an Identity, the person is in the process of actively exploring various role options, but they haven’t yet committed to any of them. |
| Identity diffusion:4/4 | The person avoids considering role options in a conscious way. Many are dissatisfied w/this condition, & are unable to “find themselves”, some resort to drugs/alcohol abuse, Any teens Identity status can change over time as the person matures as well. |
| Cliques: | 3-9 male or females, teens w/similar interests/strong mutual attachment. As they age cliques become mixed-sex groups, couples(16-19),some get married too. Those who get married this early have high failure rate compared to those who marry in 20s/30s. |
| More on Erik Erikson Intimacy vs. Isolation: | Failure to form an intimate partnership w/someone else it can cause a young adult to feel very lonely & incomplete. |
| Marriage: | 90% of Americans get married, those who marry are waiting longer to do so then many years ago. •Postponent greater in blacks than whites. |
| More Marriage: | •Heterosexual is still the norm, there is also long-term cohabiting where those (35 and older) couples live together w/out financial/tax issues. •There is also homosexual couples too |
| More on Marriage: | • 6 year study of men between 24-60 found that those with good social support outlived those w/out. • People who didn’t join social organizations are 2x likely to die during the same period than those w/social groups. |
| Even More on Marriage: | • Those who are unhappy w/the quality of their relationships are 2x likely to die than those who are satisfied w/them. |
| More on Erikson: | Generativity vs. stagnation: Generativity is the ability to continue being productive & creativity, especially in ways that guide & encourage future generations. For those who fail to achieve this state become stagnant & bored. |
| Midlife Crisis: | Person feels very unfulfilled, & is ready for a radical shift in their career, personal relationships, & or lifestyle. • Not typical, most middle-aged adults feel less anxiety/worry than young adults & generally feel positive about life. |
| More on Midlife Crisis: | •Also even w/ laziness, few people have few serious conditions. •Only 10% have a MC. |
| Daniel Levinson: | He studied personality development in men/women throughout adulthood, he preferred the term Midlife transition. |
| Midlife Transition: | Process where adults assess the pas & formulate new goals for the future. |
| Menopause: | Stoppage of menstruation, Estrogen drops a lot at age 45 and women have “hot flashes”. • Women’s bones thin a lot making them more vulnerable to fractures |
| Men: | Have a gradual decline of testosterone 30-40% between ages 48-70. |
| Alzheimer's Disease: | Named after German Neurologist Alois Alzheimer, it’s a neurological disorder. • Most commonly found in late adulthood • Characterized by progressive loss In memory • Cognition & changes in personality occur |
| Alzheimer's Disease CONT: | • It’s very common, 10% over 65 & nearly half of adults over 85 get this • Can take 2-20 years and its it’s fatal • No cure for it, but there have been breakthroughs in research |
| Psychiatrist Kubler Ross has 5 stages of dying: | Denial,Anger,Bargaining,Depression,Acceptance |
| Denial(1/5) | Person seeks other options & denies the diagnosis |
| Anger(2/5) | Person expresses resentment toward those who will live to fulfill a dream |
| Bargaining(3/5) | Person tries to buy time by negotiating w/Drs, family, clergy, & God |
| Depression(4/5) | time is running out, & person is sad knowing they can’t do anything about it. |
| Acceptance(5/5) | Person is tired/weak & gives in to their fate |
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