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PSY 2012
Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Mode | the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution |
| Mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores |
| Median | the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
| Range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
| Standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
| Normal curve (normal distribution) | a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes |
| Correlation coefficient | a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. |
| Scatterplots | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. |
| Regression toward the mean | the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average |
| Statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
| Cross-sectional study | a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another |
| Longitudinal study | research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time |
| Aristotle | theorized about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality. |
| Wilhelm Wundt | crated an experiment apparatus to measure the lag time between people’s hearing a ball hit a platform and them pressing a telegraph key. |
| Ivan Pavlov | Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning. |
| Sigmund Freud | Austrian physician who developed an influential theory of personality and emphasized the ways emotion responses affect our behavior. |
| Jean Piaget | Swiss biologist who was the most influential observer of children. |
| Introspection | focusing on inner sensations, images, and feelings. |
| John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner | demonstrated conditioned responses on "Little Albert" |
| psychology | the science of behavior and mental processes |
| nature-nurture issue | the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make the development of psychological traits and behaviors |
| basic research | pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base |
| applied research | scientific study that aims to solve practical problems |
| SQ3R | Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, and Review |
| hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we should have foreseen it. |
| critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions |
| theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. |
| Hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
| Operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables |
| Replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. |
| Case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. |
| Survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group. |
| Population | all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population) |
| Random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. |
| Naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| Jane Goodall | famous for her work with observing chimpanzees using deception |
| Correlation | the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other. |
| Illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists |
| Experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable) |
| Random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups. |
| Experimental group | in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. |
| Control group | in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. |
| Double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. |
| Placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. |
| Independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
| Dependent variable | the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. |
| Culture | the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from on generation to the next. |
| Associative learning | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant learning). |
| Classical conditioning | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
| Learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. |
| Neutral stimulus (NS) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response. |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response |
| Conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association, comes to trigger a conditioned response. |
| Acquisition | in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. |
| Higher-order conditioning | a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. |
| Extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS). |
| Spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. |
| Generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. |
| Discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. |
| Respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. |
| Operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| Operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. |
| Law of effect | Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by a favorable consequences become more likely. |
| Operant chamber | in operant conditioning, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal’s bar pressing or key pecking. |
| Shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
| Positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. |
| Negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. |
| Primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| Conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. |
| Continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. |
| Fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. |
| Variable-ration schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| Fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. |
| Variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. |
| Punishment | an event that decreases the behavior it follows. |
| Cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment |
| Latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| Instinctive drift | animals revert to their biologically predisposed patterns |
| Observational learning | learning by observing others. |
| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. |
| Mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. |
| Prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. |
| Social cognition | our attitudes and our explanations of people’s sometimes unexpected actions. |
| Social psychology | the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. |
| Attribution theory | the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. |
| Fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. |
| Attitude | feelings, often influenced by our beliefs that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. |
| Central route persuasion | attitude-change path in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. |
| Peripheral route persuasion | attitude-change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the speaker’s attractiveness. |
| Foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. |
| Role | a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position out to behave. |
| Cognitive dissonance theory | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. |
| Chameleon effect | an effect of unconsciously mimicking another individual’s actions or behaviors such as yawning or tapping a foot |
| Conformity | adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. |
| Normative social influence | influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval |
| Informational social influence | influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality |
| Social facilitation | stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others |
| Social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal rather than individually accountable. |
| Deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in-group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. |
| Group polarization | the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. |
| Groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. |
| Minority influence | the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities |
| Prejudice | an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. |
| Stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. |
| Discrimination | unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. |
| Just-world phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. |
| In-group | “us”: people with whom we share a common identity |
| Out-group | “them”: those perceived as different or apart from our group |
| In-group bias | the tendency to favor our own group |
| Scapegoat theory | the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
| Other-race effect | the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. |
| Aggression | any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy |
| Social scripts | unconscious behaviors on how to act in a new situation |
| Rape myth | the idea that some women invite or enjoy rape and get “swept away” while being “taken” |
| Mere exposure effect | the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a novel stimuli increases liking them |
| Reward theory of attraction | that we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs |
| Passionate love | an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship |
| Companionate love | the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined |
| Two-factor theory of emotion | emotions have two ingredients: physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal |
| Socrates, Plato, and Descartes | believed that the mind and body are separate. |
| Rene Descartes | suggested that animal spirits flow through the nerves so as to produce movements of the body. |
| Charles Darwin | highlighted the reproductive advantage of environmentally adaptive traits. |
| false consensus effect | the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our attitude |
| Equity | a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it |
| Self-disclosure | revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others |
| Altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others |
| Bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
| Social exchange theory | the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. |
| Reciprocity norm | an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. |
| Social responsibility norm | an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. |
| Conflict | a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. |
| Social trap | a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, became caught in mutually destructive behavior. |
| Mirror-image perceptions | mutual views often help by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. |
| Superordinate goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation |
| GRIT | Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction: a strategy designed to decrease international tensions |
| William James | an American philosopher who became the author of an important 1890 textbook. |
| Margaret Floy Washburn | the first woman to receive a psychology Ph. D. |
| B. F. Skinner | rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior. |
Created by:
JacobGant
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