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GRE Psych
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Kurt Lewin | developed theory of association; grouping things together based on the fact tha they occur together in time and space. Pavlov proved it. |
| Higher-order conditioning | a previous CS becomes an UCS for another NS |
| Forward/Backward conditioning | Forward = CS is presented before the UCS; Backward = CS is presented after the UCS |
| primary drive | instinctual drives such as hunger or thirst |
| secondary drive | acquired drives, such as money or learned reinforcers |
| Fritz Heider | balance theory |
| Balance theory | developed by Fritz Heider, a theory of motivation where we need to obtain psychological balance |
| Charles Osgood and Perry Tannenbaum | Congruity theory, a theory of motivation similar to balance theory and revolves around maintaining homeostasis |
| Leon Festinger | cognitive dissonance theory |
| Clark Hull | proposed performance = drive X habit |
| Edward Tolman | proposed performace = expectation X value, also known as expectancy-value theory |
| expectancy-value theory | performance = expectaition X value, people are motivated by goals that they think they will meet combined with the value of the event |
| Victor Vroom | applied expectancy-value theory to organization psych - the lower you are in the totem pole, the less likely you are to perceive value |
| Henry Murray and David McClelland | need for achievement (nAch) |
| Need for achievement (nAch) | the idea that we are motivated to be most successful, either through gaining success or avoiding failure |
| John Atkinson | furthered nAch by saying that those that feel pride in work use small goals with intermediate risks. They feel accomplished and seek success more than fear failure. |
| Neil Miller | approach and avoidance conflict |
| Premack Principle | the idea of rewarding an undesired event with a desired event (i.e. dessert after eating spinach) |
| Donald Hebb | Intermediate levels of arousal are optimal for motivation, too much or too little hamper results |
| Yerkes-Dodson effect | optimal arousal is an upside-down U (extremes don't help) |
| response learning | linking a series of stimuli and responses |
| chaining | linking together a series of stimili and behaviors to approximatethe desired behavior |
| autoshaping | when an apparatus allows a subject to reinforc their own behaviors, such as bar pressing |
| John Garcia | genetic preparedness for learning, esp. nausea |
| Garcia effect | the quick asociation between nausea and food |
| M. E. Olds | used direcct stimulation to reward centers in brain for animals to self-stimulate; evidence against drive-reduction theory |
| Continuous v. Discrete learning | motor tasks are better if one task leads directly to another (like riding a bike) than if discrete |
| Positive transfer | when old learning makes it easier to perform new learning |
| Negative transfer | when old learning makes it harder to perform new learning |
| Hermann Ebbinghaus | Forgetting and learning curve (learning changes acceleration over time, slow, quick slow) |
| Phoneme | discrete sounds in language that carry no meaning |
| Morpheme | the smallest possible group of phonemes that form meaning (boy, ing) |
| Morphology (morphological rules) | grammar |
| Prosody | aspects of pronunciation that carry meaning (tone, inflection, accents, etc.) |
| Noam Chomsky | transformational grammar, surface structure, language acquisition device (LAD) |
| transformational grammar | theory of Noam Chomsky, differentiates between surface structure and deep structure in language |
| surface structure | how words are organized on the surface in an expression |
| deep structure | the true meaning of an expression |
| overregulation | linguistic error made by learners of a new language when they overapply a rule (sheeps) |
| overextension | generalizing the name for things |
| telegraphic speech | speech without articles or extras, such as "me go" |
| who learns language faster? girls/boys | girls |
| acquisition milestones | 1 year - 1st words; 2 year - < 50 words in 2-3 word sentences; 3 yrs - 1000 word vocab w/ many errors; 4 yrs - grammar are rare excpetions |
| Robert Brown | theory of children's linguistic acquisition = children make hypotheses about syntax and self-correct with experience |
| Katherine Nelson | language really acquires with active speech, and not just with passive listening |
| William Labov | ebonics |
| Lev Vygotsky | word meanings are complex and altered by life experiences, worked with Alexander Luria |
| Alexander Luria | word meanings are complex and altered by life experiences, worked with Lev Vygotsky |
| Charles Osgood | used plots and graphs (semantic differential charts) which allowed subjects to plot word meanings - ppl w/similar backgrounds and itnerests have similar plots (connotation) |
| iconic memory | sensory memory for vision |
| George Sperling | studied iconic memory; partial reports of a line of flashed texts show that we see mroe than we remember |
| Ulric Neisser | coined the term icon for a single brief visual memory; worked with backward masking |
| backward masking | when an image or sound is presented before the previous one exits the sensory memory; this is more effective if it is similar to the original image/sound |
| echoic memory | the sensory memory of the auditory system |
| Short term memory | is mostly auditory and phonological |
| proactive interference | disrupting stimli that occur before the new item is presented |
| proactive inhibition | the difficulty in remembering a new item due to proactive interference |
| retroactive interference | disrupting stimuli that occur after the new item is presented |
| retroactive inhibition | the difficulty in remembering a new item due to retroactive interference |
| Savings | measure of LTM with a comparison of the time it takes to learn information the second time |
| encoding specificity principle | a subject is more likley to recall information in the same context in which it was learned |
| semantic memory | general knowledge of the world; impersonal facts |
| declarative memory | factual knowledge with two types: semantic and episodic |
| Frederick Bartlett | reconstructive memory |
| Reconstructive memory | studied by Frederick Bartlett, ideas and semandics of the story are better recalled than details or grammar of story |
| Allan paivio | dual-code hypothesis of memory |
| Dual-code hypothesis of memory | ideas are better recalled if icons/images are combined with semantic memory |
| Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart | depth of processing for memory |
| Karl Lashley | memories are stored diffusely in the brain |
| Donald Hebb | memory involves changes at the synapes "memory tree" |
| E. R. Kandel | studied the Aplysia sea slug and young chicks to show physical changes in the neurons with memory |
| Brenda Milner | patient "HM" with lesion to the hippocampus and could not create new long-term memories |
| Serial learning | memorizing lists of info, subject to the primacy and the recency effect |
| serial-anticipation learning | memorized list of info where the subject needs to only recall the next set of info |
| paired-association learning | learning one thing in association with another, such as foreign language vocabulary |
| free recall learning | remembering lists of information in any order |
| factors of improving memory | acoustic dissimilarity, semantic dissimilarity, brevity, familiarity, concreteness, meaning, importance to the subject |
| decay / trace theory | memories fade with time - too simplistic |
| interference theory | competing information blocks retrieval |
| generation-recognition | states that recognition will always be easier than recall |
| eidetic memory | photographic memory |
| tachtiscope | flashes images for fractions of an inch |
| Zeigarnik effect | tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks |
| concept | the representation of the relationship between two things (i.e. concepts of bird - wings and flies) |
| mental set | preconceived notions of how to approach a problem |
| script | idea of how events typically unfold |
| prototypes | the representative or stereotypical example (scientists are good at math) |
| J. P. Guilford | defined convergent and divergent thinking |
| convergent thinking | taking many items to create a single solution |
| divergent thinking | taking one item and making multiple possible solutions |
| functional fixedness | closed mindedness about the use of an object |
| problem space | the sum total of all the possible moves that one could possibly take in order to solve a problem |
| mediation | the intervening mental steps between stimulus and response, reminding us how to respond or previous experience |
| Allen Newell and Herbert Simon | created artificial intelligence, called computer simulation models, to mirror human thinking and problem solving |
| logic theorist | first artificial computer simulation model by Allen Newel and Herbert Simon |
| general problem solver | updated artificial simulation model by Allen Newel and Herbert Simon |
| deductive reasoning | leads to a specific conclusion from the information given |
| inductive reasoning | leads to general rules inferred from specific details |
| atmosphere effect | when a conclusion is influenced by the way information is phrased |
| semantic effect | making conclusions based on what is thought to be correct instead of what logically follow from information given |
| Elizabeth Loftus, Allan Collins, Ross Quillan | discovere semantic heirarchy that proved that related words are processed faster (canary is a bird = true is faster than toaster is a bird = false |
| which processes memory faster, pictures or words? | words |
| bottom-up processing | taking pieces, esp data, to form an item or recognize a pattern |
| top-down processing | taking overall concepts and creating individual ideas |
| saccade an eye movement | from one fixed point to another, esp when reading or gazing |
| James-Lange theory of emotion | bodily reactions cause emotion |
| Cannon-bard theory of emotion | bodily sensations and emotional attributions happen simultaneously |
| Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotion | similar to James-Lange theory, where we feel bodily reactions, and then we must think about them and attribute before we know how we feel |
| receptive field | the part of the world that triggers a particular neuron |
| sensory transduction | the process in which physical sensation is changed into electrical messages |
| nativist theory | perception and cognition are laregely innate |
| structuralist theory | bottom-up processing, perception is the sum total of all sensory imput |
| James Gibson | perceptional development in the ability to make finer discriminations among stimuli |
| ciliary muscles | the muscles that allow the lens to focus on an image |
| Ewald Hering | opponent-process theory of vision/coloor perception |
| Thomas Young and Hermann von Hemholtz | tri-color theory / component theory |
| lateral inhibition | allows for contrast, when a receptor cell is stimulated, the nearby cells are inhibited |
| David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel | discovered the specialization in the visual cortex (some respond to vertical lines, some horizontal lines, right angles, etc. |
| Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk | visual cliff |
| McCollough effect | aka after images, due to fatigued receptors that are overshadowed by opponent-processes |
| Pragnanz | Gestalt idea that experience will be organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible (this is how Gestalt explains how we make order out of chaotic images |
| phi phenomenon | the tendency to perceive smooth motion where there is none (apparent motion - animation) |
| Muller-Lyer Illusion | equal lines with wings |
| Ponzo illusion | equal lines between converging lines |
| autokinetic effect | a single point of light in darkness appears to shake and move, due to the movement of our eyes w/o any reference points with which to adjust |
| Purkinje shift | the perception of color brightness changes with illumination. Red especially appears less bright in low illumination |
| Prosopagnosia | inability to recognize faces |
| Robert Fanz | studied infant pattern preferences (complex yet sensical) |
| E. H. Weber | coined the term "differential threshold" (just noticeable difference) |
| Weber's Law | a stimulus needs to be increased by a constant fraction of its original value in order for an organism to perceive a difference |
| Fechner's Law | a refinement of Weber's law - the just noticeable difference increases logrithmically |
| Signal Detection Theory | Developed by J. A. Swet, perception cannot be mathematically determined due to response bias (motivation). Response bias and signal strength determines perception |
| Amplitude | determines intensity/loudness |
| Frequency | pitch |
| Pinna | the fleshy part of the ear |
| Ossicles | three inner-ear bones: malleus, incus, stapes (hammer, anvil, stirrup) |
| basilar membrane | membrane of the ear that are stimulated by the flow of cochlear fluid to hear |
| Hermann von Hemholtz | discovered that different places of the cochlea are responsible for different tones |
| sound localization | high pitched sounds are located byintensity differences, low-pitched sounds are located by phase differences |
| dichotic presentation | experiments where different sounds are placed in each ear, used to studey auditory perception and selective attention |
| papillae | taste buds |
| free nerve endings | sense pain and temperature changes in skin |
| Meissner's corpuscles | skin sensors for touch or contact |
| Pacinian corpuscles | touch receptors for displacement of skin |
| physiological zero | the temperature that is neither cold nor hot |
| Robert Mezack and Patrick Wall | developed gate-control theory |
| Proprioception | the ability to tell the positioning of the body |
| Osmoreceptors | sense thirst |
| Myelencephalon | medulla; reflexes, sleep, attention, movement |
| metencephalon | the pons and cerebellum |
| medulla | reflexes, sleep, attention, movement |
| pons | connects the brain to the spinal cord |
| reticular formation | considered oldest part of the brain; responsible for a;ertness, thirst, sleep, involuntary muscles |
| mesencephalon | midbrain |
| tectum | controls vision and hearing, part of the midbrain/mesencephalon |
| tegmentum | the top of the reticular formation, part of the midbrain/mesencephalon, deals withsensorimotor system and is effected by opiates |
| diencephalon | part of forebrain, contains the thalamas and the hypothalamus |
| thalamus | channels sensory information |
| hypothalamus | ANS response; hunger and thirst; also houses the pituitary gland |
| telencephalon | everything in the forebrain except the cerebral cortex and the diencephalon; includes the limbic system, hippocampus. amygdala, cingulate gyrus |
| limbic system | group of structures for the four F's (fleeing, fighting, feeding) |
| cingulate gyrus | links areas in brain for emotion and decisions |
| gyrus | bump in the brain |
| sulcus | fissure in the brain |
| meninges | tough connective tissues that cover and protect the brain |
| superior colliculus | visual reflexes |
| inferior colliculus | auditory reflexes |
| basal ganglia | controls large, voluntary muscles, linked to Parkinson's and Huntington's |
| apraxia | can't organized particular movements |
| agnosia | difficulty processing particular sensory information |
| aphasia | language disorder, likely in Broca or Wernicke |
| alexia | inability to read |
| agraphia | inability to write |
| Broca's area | controls very fine motor movements, such as the lips and tongue to form words |
| Wernicke's area | controls the sensical choice of words |
| Hyperphagia | overeating without satiation |
| sham rage | easily provoked rage due to removal / lesion of the cerebral cortex; in animals it tends to be removal; in humans it can be hypothalamic lesion or discharge |
| ogliodendrocytes | provide / create myelin in the CNS |
| schwann cells | provide / create myelin in the PNS |
| monoamines | serotonin and dopamine |
| glutamate | most abundant excitatory transmiter |
| GABA | most abundant inhibitaory transmitter |
| Neuromodulators | neurotransmitters that cause long-term changes in the postsynaptic cell |
| H-Y antigen | turns a fetus into a male |
| hormones for menstration | estradiol, progesterone, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) |
| vasopressin | regulates water levels and therefore regulates blood pressure |
| adrenocorticotropic hormone | (ACTH) is a stress hormone that increases the production of androgens and cortisol |
| Stage 0 sleep | drowsy, neural synchrony |
| Stage 1 sleep | irregular alpha waves w/ myoclonic jerks and eye rolling |
| Stage 2 sleep | theta waves w/ sleep spindles, muscle tension, decrease in heart rate, respiration, and temperature |
| Stage 3 sleep | decrease of sleep spindles and replacement with delta waves up to 50% of the time |
| Stage 4 sleep | delata waves more than 50% of the time, growth hormones are secreted |
| beta waves | REM, neural desynchrony, paradoxical sleep |
| rebound effect | subjects dprived of REM sleep will spend more time in REM the next night |
| Konrad Lorenz | founder of ethology, studied imprinting, animal aggressoin (he thought it was instinctual and based on survival), releasing stimuli, and fixed action patterns |
| Ethology | study ofanimal behavior |
| releasing stimuli | aka releasers or sign stimuli, one individualof aspecies elicits an automatic, instinctual chain of behaviors from another individual in the same species |
| fixed action patterns | requirements: performed by most members of the species, uniform, complex, cannot be interrupted |
| Nikolaas Tinbergen | shared Nobel with Lorenz, did experiments with stickleback fish (red bellies in spring were a releasing stimuli for fighting) and herring gull chicks (red spot on bill are releasing stimuli for ecking in order to get regurgitated food) |
| supernormal sign stimulus | artificial stimuli that exaggerate the naturally occuring sign stimulus or receiver |
| Karl von Frisch | discovered the honeybee dance |
| Walter Cannon | coined "fight or flight", proposed homeostasis hypothesis |
| Haploid | a gamete that has half of the chromosomes of an organism |
| Diploid | cells that have pairs of chromosomes |
| displacement activities | aka irrelevant behaviors, behaviors that have no particular survival function |
| estrus | sexually receptive period in animals, "in heat" |
| instinctual drift | the replacement of trained or learned behaviors with instinctive/natural behaviors |
| four reproductive isolating mechanisms | 1) behavioral isolation 2) goegraphic isolation 3) mechanical isolation 4) seasonal isolation |
| sexual dimorphism | structural differences between sexes |
| bee navigation | circle dance = food close, waggle = far, angle off vertical = angle from sun, landmarks, magnetic fields, sun and polarized light are navigational aides |
| bird navigation | atmospheric pressure, infrasound (low frequency), magnetic sense, sun compas, star compass, polarized light |
| Wolfgang Kohler | used chimpazees to study insight |
| R. C. Tyron | bred maze bright and maze dull rats |
| R, M Cooper and John Zubek | Challenged R. C. Tyron's experiment; maze bright rats only did better in normal conditions. In enriched environments, both did well. In poor environments, both did poorly |
| cross fostering experiments | seperating sibling animals at birth to determine heredity and |
| projection | accusing others of having your own negative feelings |
| sublimation | defense mechanism of channeling energy from unacceptable means to acceptable means |
| screen memory | memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences |
| Individual theory | psychoanalytical theory developed from Alfred Adler, based on the postitive, creative, social, and whole. We work on social needs and on "becoming", we either feel inferiority due to the gap between the ideal and the real, or a quest for superiority |
| Adlerian personality models | choleric (ruling-dominant; activity high contribution low), phlegmatic (getting-leaning; low activity high in contribution), melancholic (avoiding; low in activity and contribution), and sanguine (socially useful; high in both activity and contribution) |
| analytical theory | Carl Jung, the main drive is toward life and awareness |
| persona | the outer mask and mediator with the outside world, analytical theory (Jubng) |
| shadow | a person's dark side, projected onto others and symbolized by devils, analytical theory (Jung) |
| anima | female elements that men possess, completmenting his own maleness, analytical theory (Jung) |
| animus | male elements that females possess, complementing her own femaleness, analytical theory (Jung) |
| self (analytical theory) | the full individual potential, symbolized by figures such as Jesus or Buddha, and by the mandala |
| cognitive therapy | Aaron Beck; conscious thought patterns are the main role and not unconcsious drives; interpretation of events is more important than actual events; therapy is directed, short term, and focuses on tangible evidence of client logic |
| maladaptive cognitions | arbitrary inference, overgeneralization , magnifying/minimizing, personalizing, dichotomous thinking |
| arbitrary inference | drawing a conclusion without solid evidence (cognitive therapy) |
| dichotomous thinking | black and white thinking in cognitive therapy |
| rational-emotive therapy | Albert Ellis; combination of cognitive, behavioral, and emotion theory; ABCDE (Activating event, irrational Belief, Consequence of emotional disruption, therapist Disputes belief, client gets Effective rational belief |
| gestalt theory | Fritz Perls, max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka; the goal is to detatch from past and fully experience and perceive the present; problems arise when we cannot perceive/fully experience the presetn and lack insight; thearpy is a dialog |
| existential theory | Victor Frankl and Rollo May; focuses on meaningfulness and meaninglessness; neuroticism stems from a lack of meaning |
| antipsychotics | block dopamine receptors and production; thorazine (chlorpromazine) and Haldol (haloperidol) |
| chlorpromazine | Thorazine generic, and antipsychotic |
| Thorazine | name brand for chlorpromazine, an antipsychotic |
| Haldol | name brand for haloperidol, an antipsychotic |
| Haloperidol | generic for Haldol, an antipsychotic |
| Lithium | an antimanic, used for treatment of manic-depression |
| Antimanics | inhibit monoaminessuch as norepinephrine and serotonin |
| Antidepressants | increase monoamine production; include tricyclic antidepressants (TCA), Monoamine Oxidase Inhibtors (MAOI), Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI), anxiolytics, and antabuse |
| tricyclic antidpressants (TCA) | amitriptyline (Elavil) |
| amitriptyline | generic for Elavil, an tricyclic antidepressant |
| MAOI | monoamine oxidase inhibitor, such as phenelzine (Nardil) |
| Elavil | brand name for amitriptyline, a tricyclic antidepressant |
| Phenelzine | generic for Nardil, an MAOI |
| Nardil | brand name for phenelzine, an MAOI |
| SSRI | Selective Serotonin reuptake inhibitor, such as Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft |
| Prozac | name brand for fluoxetine, an SSRI |
| Fluoxetine | generic for Prozac, an SSRI |
| Paxil | name brand for paroxetine, an SSRI |
| Paroxetine | generic for Paxil, and SSRI |
| Zoloft | name brand for sertraline, an SSRI |
| Sertraline | generic for Zoloft, an SSRI |
| Anxiolytics | increase effectiveness of GABA to reduce anxiety or cause sleep; include barbituates and benzodiazepines |
| Diazepam | generic for Valium, an anxiolytic benzodiazepine |
| Valium | name brand for diazepam, an anxiolytic benzodiazepine |
| Antabuse | changes metabolism of alcohol to make one nauseous (i.e. fight alcoholism) |
| Hans Eysenck | critcized effectiveness of psychopharmacology as being no more succssful than no treatment at all |
| Melanie Klein | pioneered psychoanalysis in children; object-relations theory (adult relations are based on infant/child experiences) |
| Karen Horney | Neo-Freudian, stressed culture and society over instinct, neuroticism is a movement away from people |
| Harry Stack Sullivan | Neo-Freudian, empasized social and interpersonal relationships |
| The Three Forces of psychotherapy | Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Humanistic Psychology |
| Donald Meichenbaum | stress-inoculation therapy |
| Neil Miller | proved that abnormal behavior can be learned |
| Pick's disease | disease of the frontal and temporal lobes characterized by changes in personality |
| schizoaffective disorder s | chizophrenic symptoms with depression |
| schizotypal | elements of schizophrenia/distorted reality, with eccentricities |
| tardive dyskinesia | repetetive movements of tongue, jaw, or extremeties as a consequence of long-term neuroleptic or psychotropic drugs |
| cretinism | mental retardation caused by iodine deficiency |
| Korsakoff's syndrome | caused by heavy drinking, a vitamin B deficiency creates gaps in memory that are filled with made up events called confabulations |
| Wernicke's syndrome | caused by heavy drinking, a thiamine deficiency causes memory problems and eye dysfunctions |
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | excessive amino acids in infants creates errors in metabolism |
| Tay-Sachs Disease | genetic deficiency that mimics symptoms of dementia and schizophrenia |
| Klinefelter's syndrome | a Y and two X chromosomes |
| Martin Seligman | discussed reactive depression and learned helplessness |
| Thomas Szasz | schizophrenia is artisitc, misunderstood, and should not be treated |
| Fromm and Reichman | schozophrenogenic mothers |
| David Rosenhan | studied pseudopatients that acted normal once they were admitted but whose behaviors were still being labeled as abnormal |
| Axis I | Clinical disorders |
| Axis II | Personality Disorders and Menta Retardation |
| Axis III | General Medical Conditions |
| Axis IV | Psychosocial and environmental conditions |
| Axis V | GAF Score |
| primary preventions | programs like DARE or Headstart that prevent mental health concerns in target populations |
| zygote | fertilized ovum |
| germinal stage | lasts 2 weeks, divides into 64 cells and implants into the uterus |
| embryonic stage | lasts until the end of the second month, main focus is organ formation |
| fetal stage | 3 months until birth |
| Moro reflex | throwing arms and legs in response to loud noises |
| Babinski reflex | curling toes when bottom of foot is touched |
| Palmar reflex | grasping in hand |
| adaptation (Piagetian) | assimilation (fitting new info into existing ideas) or accomodation (modifying schemata to incorporate new information) |
| sensorimotor stage (Piagetian) | 0-2 years, reflexes give way to circular reactions (repeated behavior to manipulate)' object permanence; representaiton (visualization and language) |
| preoperational stage (Piagetian) | 2-7 years, egocentric understanding, rapidly acquiring words, inability to perform mental operations such as causality or true understanding of quantity |
| concrete operational (Piagetian) | 7-12 years, understanding concrete relatiohships (simple math and quantity), conservation despite shape and volume changes |
| formal operational (Piagetian) | 12+ years, abstract relationships, logic, ratios, and values |
| Rochel Gelman | showed that Piaget underestimated the cognitive ability of preschoolers and infants |
| Moral development (Piagetian) | 4-7 (imitates rule following behavior), 7-11 understands and follow, 12+ applies abstract rules and can change rules if all parties agree |
| Lawrence Kohlberg | theories of stages of development: avoid punishment, seek rewards, seek praise, follow rules, attentive to rights, able to follow abstract concepts |
| Carol Gilligan | postied that Kohlberg's moral development was biased towards males as it is rule-based; women follow compassion more than rules |
| Erikson's stage birth-18 m | trust v mistrust |
| Erikson's stage 18m-3y | autonomy vs. shame and doubt |
| Erikson's stage 3y-6y | initiative v guilt |
| Erikson's stage 6y-puberty | industry v inferiority |
| Erikson's stage teen | identity v. role confusion |
| Erikson's stage y adult | intimacy v. isolation |
| Erikson's stage m adult | productivity v. stagnation |
| Erikson's stage o adult | integrity v. despair |
| John Bowlby | positive and negative forces help forge attachment of infant to mother; healthy attachments to mother during critical period lead to healthy attachments throughout life |
| Mary Ainsworth | used the stange situation to study attachment; discovered stranger anxiety, seperation anxiety, etc. |
| Diana Baumrind | studied parenting styles and coined terms authoitarian, permissive, and authoritative parents |
| Arnold Gessel | nature provides only the blueprint, nurture actually develops that blueprint |
| sex-typed behavior | weak in prepubescence, strong in adolescence, weaker again later in life |
| WIlliam Sheldon | used "somatotypes" to predict personality based on body shape (fat = social pleasure-seeker, skinny = introvert) |
| GOrdan Allport | created modern personality theory based on traits and states. We have cardinal traits that do not very by state, central traits, and secondary traits. Secondary traits very greatly by state |
| Raymond Cattell | reduced Allport's 5000 traits to 16 bipolar traits |
| Big Five | OCEAN - (Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) |
| Walter Mischel and Nancy Cantor | explored the consistency paradox - personality traits are not consistent fro situation to situation; cognitive processes interfere with out personality prototype |
| heritability of personality | 40-50% |
| Kay Deaux | successes in typically male tasks are attributed to skill in males, luck in females. Women self-attribute this as well, leading to lower self-esteem |
| Sandra Bem | studied androgyny, found that self-esteem is highest with androgynous individuals, creted the Bem Sex Role Inventory |
| Martina Horner | found that women often shun male-dominated activities bcause they fear success |
| Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin | found that almost all sex-differences can be explained away through social learning except the disparity between women's verbal and men's spatial intelligence |
| Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman | described Type A personality |
| Grant Dahlstrom | discovered that Type A personality leads to heart disease |
| F-scale | stands for "fascism scale, measures authoritarianism and predicts stereotypical thinking |
| George Kelley | personal constructs (conscious thoughts) play more into personality than unconcsious |
| Jullian Rotter | locus of control |
| dispositional attribution | aka fundamental attribution error; we tend to think that another person's actions are based on personality and not situation, but reverse for ourselves |
| Barnum effect | we accept and agree with personality interpretations that are given |
| self-efficacy | the belief that one can accomplish a goal |
| Costa and McRae | discovered that personality doesn't change much after 30 |
| Thematic Apperception Test | TAT, uses ambiguous story cards that patients fill in, hopefully to project their needs, desires onto the story |
| Norman Triplett | first social psychologist experiment; foud cyclists ride faster when riding with someone else |
| Kurt Lewin | founder of social psychology,came fromGestalt |
| Fritz Heider | social psychologist, founder of attribution theoryand balance theory (we act ot preserve homeostasis) |
| halo effect | the assumption that one good characteristic means that a person has other good characteristics |
| Lee Ross | studied subjects that were told a lie and later told that it wasn't true. If they had processed an explanation for it, they still maintained original false belief |
| base-rate fallacy | the fallacy that the familiar is thought to be much more common than it really is |
| M. J. Lerner | just world hypothesis |
| representative heuristic | a heuristic based on how much a person fits a prototype or stereotype |
| availability heuristic | heuristic that assumes that the most salient example is most common |
| Leon Festinger | cognitive dissonance |
| Daryl Bem | self-perception theory - we take cues from our behavior and environment (when we are paid, we don't enjoy it as much) |
| gain-loss theory | we like starting out negatively and improving better than having posive the whole time |
| Morton Deutsch | prisoner's dilemma and trucking company dilemma |
| Solomon Asch | the experiment with confederates who lied about which line is bigger to test conformity |
| Muzafer Sharif | Robber's Cave experiment, used game-style to look at conflict and prejudice, showed that equal power and cooperative problem-solving overcome prejudice |
| James Stoner | group polarization; the risky shift (groups are more likely to take risks than individuals), discussion serves to strengthen the alsready dominat POV |
| factors of groupthink | Irving Janis, unquestioned beliefs, pressure to conform, invulnerability, censors, cohesiveness within, isolation from without, and a strong leader |
| pluralistic ignorance | most disagree but believe that the others agree, so everyone goes along with the group even though they don't mostly agree |
| Kenneth and Mamie Clark | showed that black girls preferred white dolls |
| four factors of attraction | 1) propinquity (nearness) 2) physically attractive 3)similar attitudes 4) reciprocity |
| Richard Lazarus | studied reactions to stress. we can either change the stressor (problem-focused) or our reaction (emotion-focused) |
| J. Rodin and E. Langer | showed that elderly that take care of aplant are healthier |
| bogus pipeline | lie told that a machine can tell if they are lying so that people give more correct responses |
| Leonard Berkowitz | studied link between frustration and aggression |
| M. Rokeach | showed that like-mindedness is more powerful than like-skinnedness |
| Hazel Markus | studied interaction of how communal/individualistic a culture is and personality |
| Elaine Hatfield | passionate and companionate love |
| Walter Dill Scott | first to apply psycho9logy to business, via advertising. he also started psych tests for military |
| Hawthorne effect | coined by Henry Landsberger, found that productivity increases when someone is being observed |
| Franz Joseph Gall | started prenology |
| Sir Francis Galton | first to apply stats to psych, also promoted eugenics |
| Gustav Fechner | first experimental psychologist first experiment that had mathematical results |
| Wilhelm Wundt | founder of psychology, started first psych lab |
| William James | first American psychologist, stream of consciousness and functionalism |
| Stanley Hall | recieved first psych PhD, started APA and first psych journal |
| John Dewey | reflex arc and functonalism |
| Edward Tichener | started structuralism |
| Dorothea Dix | applied psychology to improve treatment of mentally ill in hospitalization |
| Maz Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka | started Gestalt |
| Victor Frankl | started existential psychology, started logotherapy which uses the search for meaning as a means of healing |
| Aaron Beck | pioneered cognitive techniques in therapy; maladaptive thoughts cause abnormalities |
| Alfred Binet | created the IQ test |
| Stanford-Binet Intelligence scale | modified from Binet's original to account for changes in intelligence over age, used mostly in children |
| Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale | self-explanitory, but is the one used for adults and has multiple subscores |
| factors that predict IQ in adoption studies | IQ reflects biological parents and SES of adopted parents |
| decline of memory due to age | fluid intelligence (ability to learn) decreases yet crystalized intelligence (knowing facts) does not |
| Robert Zajonc | studied birth order and intelligence; the oldest is highest, and each subsequent child is less; the bigger the gap between children, the more intelligent |
| Q-sort test | subject organizes adjectives on cards into how much they indicate the subject's personality |
| MMPI | Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory assesses personality using three validity scales (lying, carelessness, and faking), also can diagnose some abnormals |
| CPI | California Personality Inventory used for normal populations |
| Myer-Brigg Type Indicator | Personality inventory based on Jungian psycholgy to give the four letter code |
| Projective Testing | subject creates their own naswer that is interpreted |
| Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study | A series of pictures of frustrating situations where the subject needs to predict the response |
| Beck Depression Inventory | Does not diagnose, but it doues note severity of symptoms to track over time |
| empirical or criterion keying tests | responses show which subgroup a subject fits into (such as career tests) |
| Bayley Scale of Infant Development | tracks milestones of physical development but is a poor predictor of later intelligence |
| quasi-experiment | an experiment where random placement into groups is impossible or unethical (i.e. smoking for 20 years) |
| acquiensence | when a subject agrees to conflicting statements |
| demand characteristic | when a subject acts in a way that they think the experimenter wants them to act |
| Rosenthal effect | experimenter bias |
| Reactance | when a subject changes their attitude because of options being limited |
| selective attrition | when enough subjects drop out of a study and their group is no longer representative or random |
| meta-analysis | statistical analysis of multiple studies |
| nominal variables | a varaible that has a name or title attached to it, such as Republican/Democrat, male/female |
| ordinal variables | variables need to be arranged in order but there can be any gap in between, such as marathon running times |
| interval variables | variables with set distance in between, such as temperature, any zeros are arbitrary |
| ratio variables | a variable with a set order, set distance, and a real zero, such as age |
| measures of central tendency | mean, median, mode |
| calculating variance and standard deviation | variance; subtract each value from the mean, square the differences, add the squared differences, divide by the number of values, then take the square root |
| z-score | the number of deviations a datum is from the mean |
| t score | a transformation of the z score so that 50 is the mean and each increment of 10 is a snandard deviation |
| stnandard normal deviation ratios | 34:14:02 |
| Pearson r correlation coefficient | a range of -1 to +1 showing how muhc it correlates. 0 means there is no correlation, -1 is perfectly negative, etc. |
| Spearman r correlation coefficient | coefficient for the line that determines correlation when data is in ranks, |
| statistical regression | the procedure for determining relationship and predicting obe variable based on another |
| null hypothesis | no correlation between variables; the correlation is equal to or less than random chance |
| test of significance | a test to determine how much data rejects the null hypothesis |
| alpha level | the baseline criterion to test significance (less that 5% or 1% margin of error) |
| Type I error | incorrectly reject the null hypothesis |
| Type II error | incorrectly accept the null hypothesis |
| t-test | a test of significance that compares the means of two sets of data. If the difference between the means are considered significant. T tests can only be used on two data sets, and are best for continuous data (such as height or weight) |
| Chi-square test | a test of significance that looks at patterbs or distributions of a specific category (i.e. representativeness of race within a group) |
| discrete data | data that must be counted and therefore can never be negative |
| ANOVA, analysis of variance | like a t test but more flexible. it allows analysis of more than two sets of data of different sample sizes, one-way for one independent variable, two-way for two independnet variables |
| factorial analysis of variance | used for more that one independent variable and to show the effects of each independent variable |
| criterion-referenced test | measures mastery in a particular area or subject (i,e, a final exam) |
| domain-referenced test | measure less defined properties (i.e. intelligence) |
| split-half reliability | comparing two halves of a test to see reliable scores, such as evens v. odd |
| reliability | stability of test scores |
| validity | how well a test measures a construct |
| internal validity | how well the different test items test the same thing |
| external validity | how well a test measures what it says it will measure |
| concurrent validity | whether scores of a new meaure positively correlate with other measures known to measure the same construct |
| construct validity | whether it measures the construct |
| content validity | whether the content covers a good sample of the construct's aspects |
Created by:
mrjones
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