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Brain & Behavior
Chapters 2,3,4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| sensory neuron | a neuron that detects changes in the external or internal environment and sends information about these changes to the CNS. |
| motor neuron | a neuron located within the CNS that controls the contraction of a muscle or the secretion of a gland. |
| interneuron | a neuron located entirely within the CNS. |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the part of the nervous system outside the brain and the spinal cord, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord. |
| soma | the cell body of a neuron, which contains the nucleus. |
| dendrite | a branched, treelike structure attached to the soma of a neuron; receives information from the terminal buttons of other neurons. |
| synapse | a junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neuron. |
| axon | the long, thin, cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neuron to its terminal buttons. |
| multipolar neuron | a neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma. |
| bipolar neuron | a neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma. |
| unipolar neuron | a neuron with one axon attached to its soma; the axon divides, one branch receiving sensory information and the other sending the information into the CNS. |
| terminal button | the bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neuron; sends information to that neuron. |
| neurotransmitter | a chemical that is released by a terminal button; has an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron. |
| membrane | a structure consisting principally of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles. |
| cytoplasm | the viscous, semiliquid substance contained in the interior of a cell. |
| mitochondria | an organelle that is responsible for extracting energy from nutrients. |
| adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | a molecule of a prime importance to the cellular energy metabolism; its breakdown liberates energy. |
| nucleus | a structure in the central region of a cell, containing the chromosomes. |
| chromosome | a strand of DNA, with associated proteins, found in the nucleus; carries genetic information. |
| axoplasmic transport | an active process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon. |
| microtubule | a long strand of bundles of protein filaments arranged around a hollow core; part of the cytoskeleton and involved in transporting substances from place to place within the cell. |
| glia | the supporting cells of the CNS. |
| astrocyte | a glial cell that provides support for neurons of the CNS, provides nutrients and other substances, and regulates the chemical composition of the extracellular fluid. |
| phagocytosis | the process by which cells engulf and digest other cells or debris caused by cellular degeneration. |
| oligodendrocyte | a type of glial cell in the CNS that forms myelin sheaths. |
| myelin sheath | a sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons. |
| node of Ranvier | a naked portion of a myelinated axon, between adjacent oligodendroglia or Schwann cells. |
| microglia | the smallest of the glial cells; act as phagocytes and protect the brain from invading microorganisms. |
| Schwann cell | a cell in the PNS that is wrapped around a myelinated axon, providing one segment of its myelin sheath. |
| blood-brain barrier | a semipermeable barrier between the blood and the brain produced by the cells in the walls of the brain's capillaries. |
| area postrema | a region of the medulla where the blood-brain barrier is weak; posions can be detected there and can initiate vomiting. |
| electrode | a conductive medium that can be used to apply electrical stimulation or to record electrical potentials. |
| microelectrode | a very fine electrode, generally used to record activity of individual neurons. |
| membrane potential | the electrical charge across a cell membrane; the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell. |
| oscilloscope | a laboratory instrument that is capable of displaying a graph of voltage as a function of time on the face of a cathode ray tube. |
| resting potential | the membrane potential of a neuron when it is not being altered by excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials; approximately -70 mV in the giant squid axon. |
| depolarization | reduction (toward zero)of the membrane potential of a cell from its normal resting potential. |
| hyperpolarization | an increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to the normal resting potential. |
| action potential | the brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along an axon. |
| threshold of excitation | the value of the membrane potential that must be reached to produce an action potential. |
| diffusion | movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration. |
| electrolyte | an aqueous solution of a material that ionizes -- namely, a soluble acid, base, or salt. |
| ion | a charged molecule. Cations are positively charged, and anions are negatively charged. |
| electrostatic pressure | the attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between atomic particles charged with the same sign. |
| intracellular fluid | the fluid contained within cells. |
| extracellular fluid | body fluids located outside of cells. |
| sodium-potassium transporter | a protein found in the membrane of all cells that extrudes sodium ions from and transports potassium ions into the cell. |
| ion channel | a specialized protein molecule that permits specific ions to enter or leave cells. |
| voltage-dependent ion channel | an ion channel that opens or closes according to the value of the membrane potential. |
| all-or-none law | the principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propogated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber. |
| rate law | the principle that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires. |
| saltatory conduction | conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next. |
| postsynaptic potential | alterations in the membrane potential of a postynaptic neuron, produced by liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse. |
| binding site | the location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds. |
| ligand | a chemical that binds with the binding site of a receptor. |
| dendritic spine | a small bud on the surface of a dendrite, with which a terminal button of another neuron forms a synapse. |
| presynaptic membrane | the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message. |
| synaptic cleft | the space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane. |
| synaptic vesicle | a small, hollow, beadlike structure found in terminal buttons; contains molecules of a neurotransmitter. |
| postsynaptic receptor | a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter. |
| neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel | an ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor. |
| ionotropic receptor | a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site. |
| metabotropic receptor | a receptor that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter; activates an enzyme that begins a series of events that opens an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site. |
| G protein | a protein coupled to a metabotropic receptor; conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand binds with and activates the receptor. |
| second messanger | a chemical produced when a G protein activates an enzyme; carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell. |
| excitatory postsynaptic potential (ESPS) | an excitatory depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button. |
| inhibitory postsynaptic potential | an inhibitory hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button. |
| reuptake | the reentry of a neurotransmitter just liberated by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential. |
| enymatic deactivation | the destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release -- for example, the destruction of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase. |
| acetylcholine (ACh) | a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and parts of the PNS; responsible for muscular contraction. |
| acetylcholinesterase (AChE) | the enzyme that destroys acetylcholine soon after it is liberated by the terminal buttons, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential. |
| neural integration | the process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron. |
| autoreceptor | a receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by that neuron. |
| presynaptic inhibition | the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button. |
| presynaptic facilitation | the action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse; increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button. |
| neuromodulator | a naturally secreted substance that acts like a neruotransmitter except that it is not restricted to the synaptic cleft but diffuses through the extracellular fluid. |
| peptide | a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds. Most neuromodulators, and some hormones, consist of peptide molecules. |
| hormone | a chemical substance that is released by an endocrine gland and that has effects on target cells in other organs. |
| endocrine gland | a gland that liberates its secretions into the extracellular fluid around capillaries and hence into the bloodstream. |
| target cell | the type of cell that contains receptors for a particular hormone and is affected by that hormone. |
| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | a long, complex macromolecule consisting of two interconnected helical strands; along with associated proteins, strands of DNA constitute the chromosomes. |
| gene | the functional unit of the chromosome, which directs synthesis of one or more proteins. |
| cytoskeleton | formed of microtubules and other protein fibers, linked to each other and forming a cohesive mass that gives a cell its shape. |
| postsynaptic membrane | the cell membrane opposite the terminal button in a synapse; the membrane of the cell that receives the message. |
| enzyme | a molecule that controls a chemical reaction, combining two substances or breaking a substance into two parts. |
| neuraxis | an imaginary line drawn through the center of the length of the CNS, from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain. |
| anterior | with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the head. |
| posterior | with respect to the CNS, located near or toward the tail. |
| rostral | "Toward the beak"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face. |
| caudal | "Toward the tail"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction along the neuraxis toward the top of the head or the back. |
| dorsal | "Toward the back"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or hte back. |
| ventral | "Toward the belly"; with respect to the CNS, in a direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull or the front surface of the body. |
| lateral | toward the side of the body, away from the middle. |
| medial | toward the middle of the body, away from the side. |
| ipsilateral | located on the same side of the body. |
| contralateral | located on the opposite side of the body. |
| cross section | with respect to the CNS, a slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis. |
| frontal section | a slice through the brain parallel to the forehead. |
| horizontal section | a slice through the brain parallel to the ground. |
| sagittal section | a slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground. |
| midsagittal plane | the plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground; divides the brain into two symmetrical halves. |
| meninges | the 3 layers of tisse that encase the CNS: the dura mater, arachnoid membrane, and the pia mater. |
| dura mater | the outermost of the meninges; tough and flexible. |
| arachnoid membrane | the middle layer of the meninges, located between the outer dura mater and inner pia mater. |
| pia mater | the layer of the meninges that clings to the surface of the brain; thin and delicate. |
| subarachnoid space | the fluid-filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater. |
| cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | a clear fluid, similar to blood plasma, that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and the spinal cord. |
| ventricle | one of the hollow spaces within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid. |
| lateral ventricle | one of the two ventricles located in the center of the telencephalon. |
| third ventricle | the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon. |
| cerebral aqueduct | a narrow tube interconnecting the third and forth ventricles of the brain, located in the center of the mesencephalon. |
| fourth ventricle | the ventricle located between the cerebellum and the dorsal pons, in the center of the metencephalon. |
| choroid plexus | the highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid. |
| neural tube | a hollow tube, closed at the rostral end, that forms from ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development; serves as the origin of the CNS. |
| ventricular zone | a layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube; contains founder cells that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS. |
| cerebral cortex | the outermost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemisphere. |
| radial glia | special glia with fibers that grow radically outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development. |
| founder cells | cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of the CNS. |
| symmetrical division | division of a founder cell that gives rise to two identical founder cells; increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it. |
| asymmetrical division | division of a founder cell that gives rise to another founder cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular zone toward its final resting place in the brain. |
| apoptosis | death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell. |
| forebrain | the most rostral of the 3 major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon. |
| cerebral hemisphere | 1 of the 2 major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex. |
| subcortical region | the region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface. |
| sulcus | a groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller than a fissure. |
| fissure | a major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus. |
| gyrus | a convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures. |
| primary visual cortex | the region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system. |
| calcarine fissure | a fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks. |
| primary auditory cortex | the region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system. |
| lateral fissure | the fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes. |
| primary somatosensory cortex | the region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system. |
| central sulcus | the sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. |
| primary motor cortex | the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles. |
| frontal lobe | the anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe. |
| parietal lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe. |
| temporal lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes. |
| occipital lobe | the region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes. |
| sensory association cortex | those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex. |
| motor association cortex | the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex. |
| prefrontal cortex | the region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex. |
| corpus callosum | a large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain. |
| neocortex | the phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex. |
| limbic cortex | phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge ("limbus") of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system. |
| cingulate gyrus | a strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum. |
| limbic system | a group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles. |
| hippocampus | a forebrain structure of the temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system; includes the hippocampus proper (Ammon's horn) dentate gyrus, and subiculum. |
| amygdala | a structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system. |
| fornix | a fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system. |
| mammillary bodies | a protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system. |
| basal ganglia | a group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system. |
| nucleus | an identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the CNS. |
| diencephalon | a region of the forebrain surrounding the third ventricle; includes the thalamus and the hypothalamus. |
| thalamus | the largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the hypothalamus; contains nuclei that project information to specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receive information from it. |
| projection fiber | an axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminals form synapses with neurons in another region. |
| lateral geniculate nucleus | a group of cell bodies within the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus that receives fibers from the retina and projects fibers to the primary visual cortex. |
| medial geniculate nucleus | a group of cell bodies within the medial geniculate body of the thalamus; receives fibers from the auditory system and projects fibers to the primary auditory cortex. |
| ventrolateral nucleus | a nucleus of the thalamus that receives inputs from the cerebellum and sends axons to the primary motor cortex. |
| hypothalamus | the group of nuclei of the diencephalon situated beneath the thalamus; involved in regulation of the autonomic nervous system, control of the anterior and posterior pituitary glands, and integration of species-typical behaviors. |
| optic chiasm | an X-shaped connection between the optic nerves, located below the base of the brain, just anterior to the pituitary gland. |
| anterior pituitary gland | the anterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland whose secretions are controlled by the hypothalamic hormones. |
| neurosecretory cell | a neuron that secretes a hormone of hormonelike sunstance. |
| posterior pituitary gland | the posterior part of the pituitary gland; an endocrine gland that contains hormone-secreting terminal buttons of axons whose cell bodies lie within the hypothalamus. |
| midbrain | the mesencephalon; the central of the 3 major divisions of the brain. |
| mesencephalon | the midbrain; a region of the brain that surrounds the cerebral aqueduct; includes the tectum and the tegmentum. |
| tectum | the dorsal part of the midbrain; includes the superior and inferior colliculi. |
| superior colliculi | protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the visual system. |
| inferior colliculi | protrusions on top of the midbrain; part of the auditory system. |
| brain stem | the "stem" of the brain, from the medulla to the diencephalon, excluding the cerebellum. |
| tegmentum | the ventral part of the midbrain; includes the periaqueductal gray matter, reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. |
| reticular formation | a large network of neural tissue located in the central region of the brain stem, from the medulla to the diencephalon. |
| periaqueductal gray matter | the region of the midbrain surrounding the cerebral aqueduct; contains neural circuits involved in species-typical behaviors. |
| red nucleus | a large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord. |
| substantia nigra | a darkly stained region of the tegmentum that contains neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in the basal ganglia. |
| hindbrian | the most caudal of the 3 major divisions of the brain; includes the metencephalon and myelencephalon. |
| cerebellum | a major part of the brain located dorsal to the pons, containing the two cerebellar hemispheres, covered with the cerebellar cortex; an important component of the motor system. |
| cerebellar cortex | the cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum. |
| deep cerebellar nuclei | nuclei located within the cerebellar hemispheres; receive projections from the cerebellar cortex and send projections out of the cerebellum to other parts of the brain. |
| cerebellar peduncle | one of the 3 bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons. |
| pons | the region of the metencephalon rostral to the medulla, caudal to the midbrain, and ventral to the cerebellum. |
| medulla oblongata | the most caudal portion of the brain; located in the myelencephalon, immediately rostral to the spinal cord. |
| spinal cord | the cord of nervous tissue that extends caudally from the medulla. |
| spinal root | a bundle of axons surrounded by connective tissue that occurs in pairs, which fuse and form a spinal nerve. |
| cauda equina | a bundle of spinal roots located caudal to the end of the spinal cord. |
| caudal block | the anesthesia and paralysis of the lower part of the body produced by injection of a local anesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the cauda equina. |
| dorsal root | the spinal root that contains incoming (afferent) sensory fibers. |
| ventral root | the spinal root that contains outgoing (efferent) motor fibers. |
| spinal nerve | a peripheral nerve attached to the spinal cord. |
| afferent axon | an axon directed toward the CNS, conveying sensory information. |
| dorsal root ganglion | a nodule on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of afferent spinal nerve neurons. |
| efferent axon | an axon directed away from the CNS, conveying motor commands to muscles and glands. |
| cranial nerve | a peripheral nerve attached directly to the brain. |
| vagus nerve | the largest of the cranial nerves, conveying efferent fibers of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system to organs of the thoratic and abdominal cavities. |
| olfactory bulb | the protrusion at the end of the olfactory nerve; receives input from the olfactory receptors. |
| somatic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the movement of skeletal muscles or transmits somatosensory information to the CNS. |
| autonomic nervous system (ANS) | the portion of the PNS that controls the body's vegetative functions. |
| sympathetic division | the portion of the ANS that controls functions that accompany arousal and expenditure of energy. |
| sympathetic ganglia | nodules that contain synapsys between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system. |
| sympathetic ganglion chain | one of a pair of groups of sympathetic ganglia that lie ventrolateral to the vertebral column. |
| preganglionic neuron | the efferent neuron of the ANS whose cell body is located in a cranial nerve nucleus or in the intermediate horn of the spinal gray matter and whose terminal buttons synapse upon postganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia. |
| postganglionic neuron | neurons of the ANS that form synapses directly with their target organ. |
| parasympathetic division | the portion of the ANS that controls functions that occur during a relaxed state. |
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