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PSYC 225
Chapter 9
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| puberty | the time between the first onrush of hormones and full adult physical development. This usually lasts three to five years, and many more years are required to achieve psychosocial maturity |
| menarche | a girl's first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche |
| spemarche | a boy's first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. This may occur during sleep (in a "wet dream") or via direct stimulation |
| hormone | an organic chemical substance that is produced by one body tissue and conveyed via the bloodstream to another to affect some physiological function |
| pituitary | a gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and that control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands |
| adrenal glands | two glands, located above the kidneys, that produce hormones (including the "stress hormones" epinephrine [adrenaline] and norepinephrine) |
| HPA (Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis | a sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the adrenal glands |
| HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis | a sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the gonads |
| estradiol | a sex hormone, considered the chief estrogen. Females produce much more of this than males do |
| testosterone | a sex hormone, the best known of the androgens (male hormones); secreted in far greater amounts by males than by females |
| cicadian rhythm | a day-night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours |
| leptin | a hormone that affects appetite and is believe to affect the onset of puberty. Levels of this hormone increase during childhood and peak at around age 12 |
| growth spurt | the relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso |
| primary sex characteristics | the parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis |
| secondary sex characteristics | physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man's beard and a woman's breasts |
| body image | a person's idea of how his or her body looks |
| anorexia nervosa | an eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and often overexercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. This can be fatal |
| bulimia nervosa | an eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives |
| adolescent egocentrism | a characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others |
| personal fable | an aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings experiences are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else's |
| invincibility fable | an adolescent's egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving |
| imaginary audience | the other people who, in an adolescent's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many teenagers very self-conscious |
| formal operational thought | in Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts |
| hypothetical thought | reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality |
| deductive reasoning | reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics (aka top-down reasoning) |
| inductive reasoning | reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion (aka bottom-up reasoning) |
| dual-process model | the notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional and one for analytical processing of stimuli |
| intuitive thought | thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions |
| analytic thought | thought that results from analysis, such as systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. This depends on logic and rationality |
| secondary education | literally, the period after primary education (elementary or grade school) and before tertiary education (college). It usually occurs from about age 12 to 18, although there is some variation by school and by nation |
| middle school | a school for children in the grades between elementary and high school. Middle school usually begins with grade 6 and ends with grade 8. |
| entity approach to intelligence | an approach to understanding intelligence that sees ability as innate, a fixed quantity to present at birth; those who hold this view do not believe that effort enhances achievement |
| incremental approach to intelligence | an approach to understanding intelligence that holds that intelligence can be directly increased by effort; they believe they can master whatever they seek to learn if they pay attention, participate in class, study, complete their homework, etc. |
| cyberbullying | bullying that occurs when one person spreads insults or rumors about another by means of technology (i.e. emails, text messages, or cell phone videos) |
| high-stakes test | an evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure. If a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promotes, it is a high-stakes test |
| PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) | an international test taken by 15-year-olds in 50 nations that is designed to measure problem solving and cognition in daily life |
| starting point of adolescence | puberty |
| biological perspective of adolescence | puberty, storm and stress, Freud - genital stage |
| social perspective of adolescence | cultural influences |
| balanced point of view of adolescence | both biological and social influences |
| brain development in adolescence | white matter increases, gray matter declines (pruning continues, myelination speed up, improved cognition), neurons more sensitive to neurotransmitters (experiences are more intense, pleasure- & novelty-seeking; taking drugs increases) |
| sleep habits in adolescence | sleep needs still the same as in middle childhood (9 hours of sleep needed a night), but children go to bed later due to biological changes and social habits |
| sleep-deprivation in adolescence can lead to... | achievement, mood problems and more high-risk behaviors |
| puberty | the process of physical maturation that leads to physical capability to have children (rapid increases in height, weight, and strength and changes in amount and distribution of body muscle and fat) |
| puberty - physical changes | primary sex characteristics develop and begin producing eggs and sperm and secondary sex characteristics develop |
| primary sex characteristics | organs needed for reproduction |
| secondary sex characteristics | physical changes not involving sex organ (i.e. breast, pubic, underarm and facial hair, oil and sweat glands [increased output], and voice [changes]) |
| hormonal changes in puberty | growth hormone and thyroxine increase around ages 8 and 9, estrogens are more abundant in girls (adrenal estrogens) and androgens are more abundant in boys (testosterone) |
| growth spurt differences for boys and girls | boys at 12 1/2 and girls at 10 |
| proportion differences for boys and girls | shoulders broaden and legs lengthen in boys and hips broaden in girls |
| muscle-fat makeup differences for boys and girls | boys gain more muscle and aerobic efficiency and girls gain more fat |
| reactions to pubertal changes vary | cultures play a role (some see as preparation & have initiation ceremonies --> puberty is less stressful as it is seen as a right of passage, but in U.S., puberty is stressful as no one wants to talk about it) (also difficult in single-parent households) |
| physical attractiveness - body image | girls: most want to be thinner, smaller and boys: most want to be bigger |
| fitting in with peers | prefer similar level of physical maturity, early maturers in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods face more risks |
| anorexia nervosa | 1% affected, starve out of fear of getting fat, abnormalities in neurotransmitters in the brain may make some individuals more susceptible |
| bulimia nervosa | strict diet and exercise, binge and purge, 2 to 4% affected |
| girls that hit puberty later... | look more like what culture says they should look like |
| sexual activity in adolescence | is declining, yet a substantial percentage are sexually active (males start earlier than females, have few partners, and in general begin at a younger age than in the past even though it is declining) |
| impact of culture on sexual attitudes | in N.A., sexual attitudes are relatively restrictive (parents give limited information about sex and most learn about sex from friends, books, magazines, movies, TV, and the internet) |
| contraception in adolescence | inconsistent use, but older teens are more reliable than younger teens |
| reasons for not using contraception | afraid parents will find out, don't know where to get it, and they think they don't need it |
| recent CDC study | 40% of 15 to 19 year olds have had sex at least once and 14% of girls and 18% of boys say they would be a "little please" or "very pleased" if this resulted in a pregnancy |
| adolescent pregnancy | 750,000 to 800,000 American teen girls each year (25,000 under age 15), 40-50% get abortion, 85% of teen mothers are unmarried |
| problems with adolescent pregnancy | lower educational achievement, marital patters (odds of getting married in the long-term are low), and economic circumstances are bad |
| adolescents' substance use | widespread and rises over adolescence, have varying use patterns (some are minimal experimenters and others use to abuse) |
| factors in adolescent substance abuse | personal (antisocial) and environmental (family, peers) |
| substance use and abuse in adolescents | frequently begins with legal-for-adult drugs like alcohol and tobacco (alcohol and tobacco use are on the decline since the 1990's), marijuana use is next, followed by other illegal drugs |
| gateway drugs | often refers to marijuana, alcohol and tobacco (90% of illegal drug users started with marijuana) |
| substance use and abuse risk factors | personal characteristics (sensation seeking, aggressive, impulsive, history of anti-social behavior), personal beliefs (belief that drug use is not risky, is fun, less religious), family (history of substance abuse, poor parenting), and friends (users) |
| effective prevention and treatment for drug use | promote effective parenting (i.e. monitoring activities), teach skills for resisting peer pressure, reduce social acceptability of taking drugs by emph. health & safety risks, get students to commit to not using drugs (signing contracts - more effective) |
| performance-enhancing drugs | creatine and anabolic steroids (both can have serious side effects) |
| creatine | 8% of high-school athletes use these and it increases rate of energy to muscles |
| anabolic steroids | 4% of high-school boys use them and they are meant to boost muscle mass and strength |
| information-processing improvements during adolescence | attention, inhibition, memory strategies, knowledge, metacognition, cognitive self-regulation, speed of thinking and processing capacity, aka - we think "better" |
| formal operational stage (Piaget) | allows for hypothetico-deductive reasoning (deducing hypotheses from a general theory, using logic to generate hypotheses (or "guesses") and then to systematically test those hypotheses |
| scientific reasoning | able to coordinate theory with evidence and improves with age (from childhood through adulthood), though improvement varies, and contributing factors include complexity of problems, metacognitive understanding, and open-mindedness |
| consequences of adolescent cognitive changes | self-consciousness & self-focusing, idealism and criticism, planning and decision making |
| self-consciousness & self-focusing | imaginary audience, sensitivity to criticism, and personal fable |
| planning and decision making | rely on intuitive judgments, overwhelming options, far more likely than adults to choose short-term over long-term goals |
| adolescent egocentrism | tend to believe that they are unique, have special influence over events, and are invulnerable |
| adolescent as unique | no one else thinks the way they do or understands the way they feel |
| adolescent as omnipotent | all have special influence over events |
| invulnerability in adolescents | believe that bad things will not happen to them because of their uniqueness |
| school transitions in adolescence | grades decline with each transition (higher standards and less supportive teaching-learning environment) and less self-esteem (girls more than boys as girls are likely to put more pressure on themselves) |
| high-stakes testing | proponents of the U.S. No Child Left Behind Act believe that high stakes testing will improve education, but accumulating evidence shows that high-stakes testing often undermine education |
| why high-stakes testing is bad | one-size-fits-all approach, teaching to the test, promotes fear, minority youths living in poverty are most likely to fail the tests (with dire consequences), elimination of essential programs that are not on the test (i.e. art, P.E., music, drama, etc.) |
| dropout prevention strategies | remedial instruction and personalized counseling, high-quality vocational training, address factors in students' lives outside of school, extracurricular activities |
| phases of vocational development | 1) fantasy period 2) tentative period 3) realistic period |
| fantasy period | early & middle childhood, fantasize about careers |
| tentative period | ages 11 to 6, evaluate interests, abilities, and values |
| realistic period | late adolescence to adulthood, explore careers & crystallize category |
| factors influencing vocational choice | interests, values, SES, parents, gender, ethnicity, rewards, job market |
Created by:
Nicolekr
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