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Human Dev. 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Reflexes | unlearned responses to specific forms of stimulation which aid in survival |
| Examples of reflexes | rooting, sucking, eye blink, stepping, palmar grasp, withdrawal |
| APGAR | measures 5 vital signs: appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration |
| NBAS (neonatal behavioral assessment scale) | used for newborns to 24 months to provide a detailed portrait of the baby’s behavioral repertoire, including autonomic, motor, state and social systems |
| Newborn states | Alert inactivity, waking activity (give tummy time), sleeping, crying |
| Temperament | Consistent style of behavior or reaction |
| Surgency/extroversion | the degree to which a child is generally content, vocal and seeks stimulation |
| Negative affect | the extent to which a child is angry, fearful, frustrated, shy or not easily soothed |
| Effortful control | the extent to which a child can focus attention, not easily distracted or can inhibit responses |
| 6 months | Introduction of solid foods recommended |
| Cell body | contains the machinery that keeps the neuron alive |
| Dendrites | receive information |
| Receptor cells | Fit with only one neurotransmitter on end of dendrite |
| Positive charge | Charge inside cell body until message is received |
| Reuptake | Pulls unused neurons from synapse back to axon terminal |
| Sensation | Any stimuli that affects the senses |
| Action potential | Entire process that takes place at neuron |
| Axon | tube that transports impulses away from the body |
| Terminal buttons | release neurotransmitters (electrochemical messengers) that carry information from one neuron to the next |
| neural plate | Forms after 3 weeks, later folds to make a tube that becomes the brain and spinal cord |
| Myelin sheath | fatty wrap that speeds neural transmitters; acquired in 4th month |
| Synaptic pruning | Synaptic connections that are used are strengthened while those that are not used die |
| Central nervous system | Spinal cord and brain |
| Peripheral nervous system | Somatic and autonomic |
| Experience expectant brain growth | process by which the wiring of the brain is organized on experiences that are common to most humans (light, sound, touch) |
| Experience dependent brain growth | process by which the wiring of the brain is organized based on individual experiences (music) |
| Dynamic systems theory | learning to walk involves many distinct skills that are organized and reorganized over time to meet specific goals (Sit, crawl, walk) |
| Perception | The process by which the brain receives, selects, modifies and organizes nerve impulses |
| Vision | poor at birth but 20/20 by age 1; color vision complete by 3 months; depth perception by 6 months (visual cliff); innately attracted to face |
| Self recognition | Most infants recognize themselves by 15 months |
| Self awareness | emerges between 18 and 24 months |
| Infantile amnesia | Children can’t remember before age 3 |
| Theory of mind | a naïve understanding of the relationship between the mind and behavior; develops between 2-5 |
| Piaget’s theory | children understand the world with schemes |
| Assimilation | occurs when new experiences are readily incorporated into existing schemes; learning by putting things in mouth (scheme) |
| Accommodation | occurs when schemes are modified based on experiences; child comes across something too big to put in mouth, must come up with a new “scheme” for learning about the object |
| Disequilibrium | When a child hasn’t adapted to the new way of learning |
| Piaget’s theory | proposes 4 stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor (0-2), preoperational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), formal operations (11+) |
| Sensorimotor thinking | Infants move from reflexes to deliberate, intentional behavior by 8 months of age; around 12 months old, they become active experimenters |
| Object permanence | the understanding that objects still exist, even when not in sight. Full understanding not complete until 18 months |
| Preoperational thinking | View of the world is egocentric |
| Centration | Children have a narrowly focused thought process |
| Conservation of liquids | Tall slim glass of milk, and short wide glass of milk |
| Conservation of numbers | Child pays attention to length of rows and not number in each row |
| Conservation of weight and length | Play-doh balls rolled then squished |
| Animism | children give life like qualities to inanimate objects |
| Information processing theory | The idea that the human mind works like a computer; continuous cognitive development |
| Mental hardware | refers to the mental and neural structures of the brain that allow the mind to operate |
| Mental software | refers to the mental programs that we use to perform particular tasks |
| Paying attention | the process that determines which sensory information receives additional processing |
| Orienting response | occurs when we see a strong unfamiliar stimulus. A baby will startle, fix his eyes on it, and will experience changes in heart rate and brainwave activity |
| Habituation | takes place when we no longer pay attention to the stimulus |
| Autobiographical memory | a person’s memory of the significant events and experiences of their own lives, originates in preschool years |
| Behaviorism learning theory | pioneered by BF Skinner, showed that reinforcements and punishments are influential on behavior |
| Reinforcement | strengthening of a response that is followed by a reinforcing consequence |
| Punishment | weakening of a response that is followed by an aversive consequence |
| Extinction | no longer rewarding or reinforcing a behavior that has previously been reinforced. |
| Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory | children are apprentices in society learning from more skilled experts. |
| zone of proximal development | the difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with assistance |
| 2 years | Age that children learn to count |
| One to one principle | there must be one and only one number name for each object |
| Stable order principle | number names must be counted in the same order (1,3,5,4 |
| Cardinality | the last number named is the total number of objects. (1,3,5,4) |
| Phonemes | unique sounds blended together to form words |
| Infant directed speech | when adults speak in a slower tone with variation in pitch and loudness |
| Cooing | Vowel-like sounds produced at 2 months |
| Babbling | speech like sound that has no meaning (3-4 months) |
| 8-11 months | babbling begins to sound more like real speech |
| 1 year | First words - onset begins when the child realizes words are symbols |
| Fast mapping | most children learn meanings of words too rapidly for them to consider all plausible meanings systematically (may use words too narrowly as a result) |
| Underextension | using a word too narrowly |
| Overextension | using a word too broadly |
| Referential learning style | vocabulary mainly consists of words that name objects, people or actions. |
| Expressive learning style | vocabulary includes some names but also social phrases and feelings |
| Telegraphic speech | 2 words sentences together |
| Grammatical morphemes | word endings are added by 18 months |
| Overregularization | Children apply the morpheme endings incorrectly |
| Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages | Each stage the child faces a crisis that must be overcome for healthy development |
| trust and mistrust | develop a sense of hope and openness to experience tempered by wariness that discomfort or danger may arise (0-1) |
| Autonomy and shame | Combine to produce will |
| initiative and guilt | must be balanced to produce a sense of purpose; wanting it my way v getting along with others (3-5) |
| 4 stages in the growth of attachment - John Bowlby | Preattachment, attachment in the making, true attachment, reciprocal relationships |
| Mary Ainsworth | pioneered a study of attachment relationships using a procedure called the Strange Situation Test |
| Secure attachment (60-65 % of American babies) | Child explores when mom is there; engages with stranger but is upset when mom leaves; happy to see mom return |
| Avoidant attachment (20% of American babies) | Child ignores mom; doesn’t explore regardless of who’s there; could be neglect or shy |
| Resistant attachment (10-15 % of American babies) | Child showed distress even before separation; goes to mom and is angry; could be abuse or mom leaves a lot |
| Disorganized attachment (5-10%) | Shows signs of all attachment; usually more fearful or detached; mother could be depressed |
| Internal working model | a set of expectations about parents’ availability and responsiveness |
| Basic emotions | joy, anger, surprise, fear, interest, distress, disgust and sadness (almost universal) |
| 3 components of basic emotions | a subjective feeling, a physiological change and an overt behavior |
| Subjective feeling | Not everyone has the same experiences, so emotions will differ; eg. Anger – mild annoyance to blind rage |
| Physiological change | Sympathetic nervous system produces fight or flight response; eg. Sweaty palms, racing heartbeat |
| Amygdala | Brain center for fear, hunger, thirst, other emotions |
| Overt behavior | Actual expression of emotion; eg. smile |
| 8-9 months | infants experience all basic emotions |
| 2-3 months | infants can smile |
| 4-6 months | Anger develops |
| 6 months | Fear and stranger wariness develop |
| 18-24 months | Complex emotions like guilt, embarrassment, pride emerge |
| Social referencing | looking to a caregiver for cues to interpret the situation, infants use to direct their behavior |
| 4-6 months | Emotion regulation begins |
| Parallel play | toddlers play alone but are interested in what others nearby are doing |
| Simple social play | children engage in similar activities and interact |
| Cooperative play | play is organized around a theme and children play roles associated with that theme |
| Make believe play | promotes cognitive development and allows children to explore topics that may frighten them |
| Solitary play | usually normal but some forms are a sign that a child is uneasy interacting with others (wandering aimlessly or standing back watching others) |
| Prosocial behavior | Any behavior that is meant to help others; must be taught |
| Altruism | behavior driven by the responsibility toward others, in which individuals do not benefit directly from the action |
| Gender stereotypes | beliefs about males and females that may or may not be true |
| Gender labeling | by age 2 or 3 a child can simply label him/herself as a boy or girl |
| Gender stability | during preschool years, children understand that sex is stable; boys grow to be men, girls grow to be women |
| Gender constancy | between 4-7 a child understands that gender does not change over situations and time or according to personal wishes |
| Gender schema theory | children first decide if an object, activity or behavior is associated with males or females and then use this information to decide if they should learn more about the object, activity or behavior |
Created by:
Brana
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