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Language
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cognitive Psychology | How people acquire, store and retrieve knowledge about the world. |
| Knowledge | Information represented by a conscious observer. |
| How is information encoded as a message? | Coded -> Transmitted -> Decoded |
| Behaviourism | Focus on objective behaviours and actions that can be measured. E.g. Movement and salivation. However different stimuli can lead to the same behaviour and vice versa. |
| Cognitive Revolution | Infer rather than observe. Begin with observable facts and work backwards. |
| Sound Signal | Variation in air pressure across time. |
| Phonology | Concerns language sounds and how they are put together to make words. |
| Morphology | Concerns meaningful sequences of sounds and how they can be put together to make complex words. |
| Synax | Concerns how words are put into sequences to make grammatical sentences. |
| Semantics | Concerns the literal meaning of sequences of words. |
| Pragmatics | Concerns the use of language to communicate non-literal meanings (e.g. Idioms, metaphors etc.) generally to accomplish social goals. |
| Mental Lexicon | Memory store linking arbitrary sounds for words with their meanings. |
| Verb | A doing word - A word describing an action, state or occurrence. |
| Regular Verb | Verbs where inflections do not change the root word (e.g. treat to treated) |
| Irregular Verb | Verbs where inflections change the root word (e.g. (e.g. Sting to Stung) or no modifications necessary (Hit to Hit) |
| Root Word | The stem of a word. |
| Suffix | Placed at the end of a root word. |
| Prefix | Placed at the beginning of a root word. |
| Inflectional Modification | A modification of a word that does not change part of the speech or meaning (e.g. big and bigger are both adjectives). |
| Derivational Modification | A modification of a word that can change part of the speech or meaning (e.g. -ment forms nouns such as Judgement from Judge). |
| Voiced Sound | The vocal chords vibrate. |
| Voiceless Sound | The vocal chords do not vibrate. |
| Stages of Language Comprehension | Feature Detection -> Phoneme Recognition -> Word Recognition -> Syntactic Structure -> Semantic Integration |
| Stages of Language Production | Thought/Message -> Word Selection and Syntax -> Morphological Structure -> Phonological Planning -> Articulation |
| Nature vs Nurture Theories of Language Acquisition | Nature - No other animal able to learn language to the extent humans are able to, vocal structure, genetic component. Nurture - Not born speaking language, the language we speak depends on where we live, cognitive maturation. |
| Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis | The form of our language determines the structure of our thought processes |
| Consonant Phonemes Differ in Terms of: | Voicing - Vibrations of vocal chords Place of articulation - Lips, throat etc. Manner of articulation - Type of constriction |
| Vowel Phonemes Differ in Terms of: | Tongue Height Degree of 'Backness' |
| Phrase Structure Grammar | Rules for creating sentences out of groups of words. Different for different languages. |
| Top Down Processing | Word recognition affects the sounds heard, semantics and syntax affect what word is heard in sound discrimination. |
| Bottom Up Processing | Information is processed from feature detection to semantic integration. |
| Sound | Waves of increases and decreases of air pressure. Increase in oscillations (frequency) - Higher pitch sound Increase in amplitude (pressure) - Higher volume |
| Formant | Concentrations of frequency that define the phonetic quality of a vowel |
| What Makes Speech Perception So Hard? | Segmentation - Cannot use silence to distinguish between words. Lack of Invariance - Phonemes are not identified by a single set of acoustic properties. Speaker Variability - Variations in pitch and accents. Sloppy Articulation - Lack of clear speech. |
| Co-Articulation Problem | The way we pronounce a phoneme depends on which phonemes we use before and after it. |
| Voice Onset Time (VOT) | The time between the phoneme starting and when the vocal chords start vibrating. Helps to distinguish between certain phonemes. |
| Phoneme Restoration | The mind fills in missing sounds depending on the surrounding context. |
| Context Effects | Word recognition is influenced by sentence context. |
| Frequency effects | Frequent words are easier to recognise than less frequent words. |
| Neighbourhood Effects | Easier to recognise words have fewer similar words in the lexicon because they are more isolated. |
| The Cohort Model | Word recognition is handled by using the initial phoneme to activate the lexicon of all the words of that phoneme, the set is narrowed as more information is received. |
| Trace Model | Connectionist Model - Units in the model represent elements in the environment and connections exist between those units through which activation can flow or be inhibited. Features -> Phonemes -> Words. |
| Immediacy of Interpretation | Integrate words as they are received - Context affects reading time. Working memory constraints and speed benefits. Mistakes can be made and ambiguous. |
| Lexical Ambiguity | Words have multiple meanings, must decipher which of the multiple meanings the speaker intends. |
| Meaning Dominance | Relative frequency of each meaning (e.g. Bank; Dominant meaning - Money, Subordinate Meaning - River, Equibiased Meaning - Pitcher vs Pitcher) |
| Parsing | Break down the sentence into syntactic components and structure. |
| Agent | Instigator of an action. |
| Theme | The thing that has a particular location or change of location. |
| Recipient | The person receiving the theme. |
| Location | Where the theme is. |
| Source | Where the theme is coming from. |
| Goal | Where the source is moving from. |
| Time | Time of the event. |
| Instrument | The thing used in causing the event. |
| Syntactic Ambiguity | Multiple meaning of the sentence depending on how the syntax is broken down (e.g. flying planes can be dangerous) because the syntactic trees can be broken down in more than one way. |
| Garden Path Sentences. | Sentences that send you down the wrong path syntactically (e.g. The old man the boats) due to immediate interpretation. |
| Garden Path Model of Parsing | When reading a sentence we build the simplest parse possible. Late Closure - Keep words together. Minimal Attachment - Minimise structure, prefer fewer nodes. Issues: Initial preference incorrect, later information contradicts. |
| Category | A group of similar things in the world. |
| Concept | Mental representation of a category. |
| Why Are Concepts So Important? | Allow us to make predictions and draw inferences. Concepts allow for cognitive economy. Concepts allow for communication. |
| Structure of Natural Categories | Subordinate Level -> Basic Level -> Superordinate Level |
| Basic Level Categories | Best level at which to summarise categories. Spontaneous naming, recognised most rapidly, learned first. |
| Defining Attributes (DA) | Attributes are individually, necessarily and collectively sufficient for category membership. |
| Hierarchical Model | In support of DA. Intuition - Everything has rules, that's how things are put into categories. However, features are not always sufficient. |
| Prototype Theory | Concept represented by a single instance, categorisation based on similarity to prototype. Problems - Category is represented by only one example and throws away information about relationships between attributes. |
| Exemplar Theory | Every example of every instance is remembered. Support: Retains category variability information. Issues: Cannot combine concepts, no ad hoc categories, cognitive effort. |
| Explanation-Based Theory (Theory Theory) | Concepts contain knowledge of relations between attributes and items, aware of causal relations between different attributes. Problems: Assumes unconstrained knowledge |
| Figurative Speech (nonliteral) Speech | Metaphor, Sarcasm, indirect speech |
| inferences | Implications (e.g. He's got a nice personality - Unattractive) |
| Anaphora | Context is needed (e.g. I hit it with the thing) |
| Three Stage (Standard) View of Language Processes | 1. Find the literal meaning 2. Is it sensible in the context? 3.If not, infer figurative meaning |
| Grice's Co-operative Principle (Maxims) | People communicate because they agree to communicate and follow conversation rules. Quantity Quality - Not false Manner - Brief, orderly, don't be obscure Relevance |
| One-Stage View | Same processes involved in literal and figurative meanings. |
| Class Inclusion Model | Metaphors are statements of category membership which makes certain features salient. |
| Non-Anomalous Anomalies | Errors that involve structure. |
| Lexical Errors | Source - Anticipatory, Persevatory, Semantic. Change - Substitution, Exchange, Insertion, Deletion. = Show planning in advance and syntactic category rule. |
| Syntactical Frame Model | 1. Lexicon specifies the part of speech for each word (e.g nouns to nouns). 2. Linking process goes wrong. 3. Lexical specification is maintained. |
| Phoneme Errors | Source - Anticipatory, Persevatory, Semantic. Change - Substitution, Exchange, Insertion, Deletion, Shift. = Show planning in advance and consonant-vowel rule. |
| Experimental Speech Errors | Examining speech errors under controlled conditions. |
| Semantic Intrusion | Linking mistakes, a result of lexical errors. Close semantic associations determine what word is used. |
| Methods of Naturalistic Observation | Diaries Play Sessions - Observe the children in what they say and do Parental Reports - What children learn, understand and produce = Doesn't measure how the child understands |
| High Amplitude Sucking | infant will increase rate of sucking at a new sound, but will habituate once they become used to the sound. |
| Infant Phoneme Discrimination | Infants are able to distinguish all phonemes including those adults of certain languages are unable to (e.g. Discrimination of alveolar [da] and retroflex [Da]). |
| The 'Gavagi' Problem | 'How do I know what you mean?' Complete Error Under-Extension - Referring to only one object as a Gavagi Over-Extension - Referring to all objects as a Gavagi Solving: Joint attention and Constraints |
| Object Selection | Children use syntax to narrow down possible word meanings. |
| Cognitivism | Language development is driven by cognitive maturation. Language is part of cognition and limited by cognitive deficits. |
| Behaviourism | Emphasises the role of environmental input in language learning. language and cognitive development should proceed in parallel. |
| Nativism | Language development is driven by domain specific restrains imposed by the structure of the brain. LAD - Language Acquisition Device. Data consistent with theory that humans have a genetic propensity for language acquisition. |
| Pidgin | Simplified communication system. |
| Creole | Language developed by children exposed to pidgin. Full grammar and full sets o words. |
| Critical Period Assays | Biological maturation drives language acquisition. Outside of this period, acquisition is difficult. |
| Less is more Hypthesis | Shorter memory capacity as a child forces children to remember abstract regularities. Adult learners have more memory capacity and more strategies. |
| Down's Syndrome and Language Impairment | 47 chromosomes Mental retardation Poor auditory memory Delayed language ability, not quantitively abnormal |
| Specific Language Impairment (SI) and Language Impairment | IQ normal Normal Hearing Slow speech and frequent grammatical errors (non-linguistic processing intact) |
| Williams Syndrome and Language Impairment | Mental retardation - Difficulties with cognitive abilities and slow with developmental milestones Low IQ Good Auditory Memory Good Language |
| Phonological Lexicon | Sounds linked to meaning |
| How is Reading Linked to Speech? | Reading is both: Parasitic on speech Direct from print to meaning |
| Orthographic Lexicon | Mapping between written word and meaning, linking visual word with conceptual representation. |
| Grapheme-Phoneme Conversion | Allows us to pronounce non-words and agree on pronunciation. Different languages have different degrees to which this is possible. Irregular words rely on lexical identification. |
| Acquired Dyslexia | Difficulty with reading as a result of brain damage in adults. Not developmental, caused by damage to left hemisphere. |
| Deep Dyslexia | Impaired access from print to sound. |
| Surface Dyslexia | Relies on grapheme-phoneme conversion . |
| Phonological Dyslexia | Relies on Lexical identification. |
| Aphasia | Speech deficit caused by damage to the left hemisphere. |
| Broca's Aphasia | Anomia, Agrammatism, Poor articulation, Aware of the difficulty, Difficulties with both production and comprehension, Fixate on one interpretation, Difficulty linking syntactic roles. |
| Wernike's Aphasia | Poor comprehension, Fluent speech, Nonsensical, Unaware of Difficulty, Caused by damage to the temporal lobe. |
| Linguistic Relativism | Linguistic Differences are mirrored by non-linguistic differences. |
| Linguistic Determinism | People think differently because of differences in language. |
| The Turing Test (1950) | Both a machine and a human answer questions posed by an interrogator. If the machine can convince the interrogator it is human, it passes the Turing Test. |
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