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Health Psychology
midterm #2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are aspects of Persuasive Communications | Is the speaker credible?Does the message appeal to reason or emotion?Does the message appeal to fear?What assumptions does the message make about peer pressure? |
| Involved Audience | Reason works better than emotion |
| Uninvolved Audience | Won’t even process the reasons you give, so appeal to emotion |
| Does Fear lead to Attitude Change? | only in moderate amounts..too little or too much n the effects don't work |
| Does DARE Work? | YES, According to our government:DARE is widespread and popularIt appeals to all racial/ethnic groupsIt raises self-esteemIt improves attitudes toward the policeNO, According to top-quality research:It does not decrease drug use |
| American Legacy Foundation | "Truth campaign"Expose deceptive marketing tactics of “big tobacco”Entice kids to rebel against itFunded by money from the tobacco industry settlement |
| Evaluation of “Truth” Campaign | Formal studyPre-campaign smoking levels: 28%Post-campaign smoking levels: 18%Compared towns based on how often the ads were shown in eachDose-response relationship: the more your town saw the ads, the less smoking. |
| How should you frame your health communication? | Gain frameEmphasizes benefits associated with behaving a certain way.+Loss frameEmphasizes costs associated with not behaving that way. |
| “A disadvantage of failing to get regular mammograms is that you won’t find tumors early, which will leave you with fewer treatment options.” is an example of ________frame? | Loss Frame |
| “An advantage of getting regular mammograms is that you will find tumors early, which will increase treatment options.”Is an example of a ___________ frame? | Gain Frame |
| There is a new epidemic, and it will affect 600 people. Choose one:A. 200 people will be saved. ORB. 1/3rd chance 600 people will be saved and 2/3rd chance nobody will be saved. | A. 200 people will be saved. |
| There is a new epidemic, and it will affect 600 people. Choose one:C. 400 people will die. ORD. 2/3rd chance 600 people will die and 1/3rd chance nobody will die. | D. 2/3rd chance 600 people will die and 1/3rd chance nobody will die. |
| When framed as gains: | it is seen as Risk-averse |
| When framed as losses: Risk-seeking | it is seen as Risk-seeking |
| Doctor says:You have a 68% chance of living for longer than one year if you have the surgery.This is an example of a? | Gain Frame |
| The doctor says either:A: You have a 32% chance of dying by the end of the year if you have the surgery.This is an example of a? | Loss Frame |
| Illness Detection Behaviors are? | e.g., mammogram, HIV testPotential for losses – Might find a diseaseRisk-seeking |
| Health Promotion Behaviors are? | e.g., exercise, getting a vaccinePotential for gains – May prevent an illnessRisk-averse |
| Which is better as a Loss Frame? Illness Detection Behaviors or Health Promotion Behaviors | Illness Detection Behaviors |
| Which is better as a Gain Frame? Illness Detection Behaviors or Health Promotion Behaviors | Health Promotion Behaviors |
| Health Promotion Behavior: “Mouth Rinse”What is the Gain?: Loss?: | If you use this you take advantage of a way to reduce plaque.Loss: If you do not use this you are failing to take advantage of a way to reduce plaque. |
| Illness Detection Behavior: “Disclosing Rinse”What is the Gain?: Loss?: | Gain: Using this enhances your ability to detect plaque.Loss: Not using this limits your ability to detect plaque. |
| In mouth rinse study did gain frame or loss frame work better for Health Promotion Behavior? | Gain Frame |
| In mouth rinse study did gain frame or loss frame work better for Illness Detection Behavior? | Loss Frame |
| Which statement describes Approach oriented ppl?When I see an opportunity for something I like, I get excited right away.I worry about making mistakes. | (“When I see an opportunity for something I like, I get excited right away”).Approach-oriented people are people who actively seek out positive and good things. |
| Which statement describes Avoidance-Oriented ppl?When I see an opportunity for something I like, I get excited right away.I worry about making mistakes. | (“I worry about making mistakes”).Avoidance-oriented people are people who actively try to avoid negative things. |
| Approach Oriented People: Should prefer a _______ message. | gain-framed |
| Avoidance Oriented People: Should prefer a _____ message. | loss-framed |
| What are the 4 steps in regards to Message Framing and Type of Person (flossing study)? | Step 1: Measure approach/avoidance orientationStep 2: Read either gain-framed or loss-framed message about flossingStep 3: Sent home with 7 individually-wrapped flossesStep 4: Return 1 week later and report flossing behavior |
| Self-Affirmation Theory goal? | The goal of the self-system is to maintain global self-integrity.Self-image: competent, worthy, and adaptive person |
| How do people respond to threatening health information? | They either: Change their health behavior Deny the health information Affirm the self in alternative domain |
| Motivational components of AIDS educational interventions include videos depicting sexually active young people with the disease | Yet, AIDS educational videos have been shown to prompt defensive risk assessments |
| How does one reduce Defensiveness | have subjects either affirm themselves or not..those who affirm themselves chose better life choices ei. buying condoms |
| The Assumptions of Most Health Campaigns | That information changes Attitudes which changes behaviors |
| Which worked better? Fear or low-fear information booklet about getting a tetanus shot | Fear booklet led to stronger attitudes about the importance of tetanus shot and intentions to get oneBut only 3% of subjects got shotIf put campus map and clinic hours in booklet, 28% of subjects got shot |
| Health Belief Model: Performing a health behavior depends on? | Belief that there is a health threatBelief that a behavior can reduce threat |
| Using Health Belief Model to Increase Mammography Use depended on? | Beliefs about being vulnerableBeliefs about severityBelief that a mammogram is a useful way to reduce threat.Benefits outweigh risks |
| Women given intervention based on Health Belief Model: | 30% had mammogram in next 3 months50% in next 6 months |
| Strengths of Health Belief Model: | StrengthsIncludes useful constructsFocuses on people’s beliefs – it is a subjective model |
| Weaknesses of Health Belief Model: | WeaknessesAssumes behavior is rationalAssumes people have the skills to alter behaviorIgnores social context of many health behaviors |
| Theory of Planned Behavior--Attitudes are a function of: | Beliefs about the outcome of an actionEvaluation of that outcome |
| Theory of Planned Behavior--Norms are a function of: | Perceptions of others’ support for that actionMotivation to comply with others’ wishes |
| Theory of Planned Behavior's Strenghts | StrengthsIncorporates social aspect of health behaviorsDoesn’t assume people want to be healthyIncludes person’s beliefs about their ability to change |
| Theory of Planned Behavior's Weaknesses | WeaknessesPredicts intentions, not actual behaviorsPeople don’t always do what they intend to do |
| Diffusion of Innovations Theory | KnowledgePersuasionBehavior ChangeConfirmation |
| In Diffusion of Innovations Theory, Behavior Change is influenced by? | Opinion leaders influence other people’s decisionsThey are sought out for info and adviceThey exert influence informally, just by interacting with peopleThey are good role models for community |
| What are the stages of Intervention based on Diffusion of Innovations Model | Stage 1: Identified opinion leadersStage 2: Trained opinion leaders Stage 3: Opinion leaders spread the word |
| Stages of Change Theory | Precontemplation--contemplation--preparation--action--maintenance--relapse/recycle |
| Strenghts of Stages of Change Theory | StrengthsPractical – doesn’t force techniques into one theoryRealistic – acknowledges that people can be at different stages |
| Weaknesses of Stages of Change Theory | WeaknessesDoesn’t really give any new techniquesPeople may be in same stage for different reasonsDoesn’t explain how people can move from one stage to the next |
| 5 Lessons from Prevention Research | You don’t need to know how to treat an illness to prevent it.Base your efforts on theory.Intervene at many levels.Involve the community.Evaluate your efforts. |
| Effective Interventions are Based on Theory | Practical: More likely to workEthical: More likely to think it will work |
| What is a construct? | Something you measure when you’re studying itSomething you’re trying to change (move up or down)Unobservable |
| Effective Interventions Target Appropriate Levels | Individual Perceptions, skills, beliefs, etc. Dyad Couples communication and supportCommunitySocial norms, community resourcesPolicy/LegalChanging laws ect. |
| Effective Interventions are (often) Intense in Size and Scope | Sustained interventions are more likely to lead to sustained behavior changeMore intense interventions (more sessions) are more likely to result in greater risk reductionEffect size: Must be big enough to matter |
| Effective Interventions Target People at Risk | Find out who is at riskrisk factorproxy for risk factorFind out where your risk group is locatedGo there, even if it is easier to go somewhere else |
| Effective Interventions are Appropriate for the Risk Group/Risk Factor | GenderAgeEthnicity/CultureSexual OrientationOther |
| Effective Interventions are Appropriate for Individuals’ Level of Readiness for Change | E.g., Stage Models: They don’t assume everyone is equally ready to change. |
| Stages of Readiness | 1. Unaware of issue2. Aware but not interested3. Aware and considering response4. Decide to take action5. Initiate behavior6. Maintain behavior |
| Effective Interventions Do Only What They are Supposed to Do | Sometimes interventions have unintended effectsHIV 2ary prevention studyEating disorder prevention studyTry to foresee these types of problems, if possible, and prevent them from happening |
| Effective Interventions Make Preventing Drop-Outs a Priority | Devote resources to preventing attritionStaff person focused on this aloneStudy Swag, plus newsletter, to keep people involvedCollect data that allow you to assess effects of attritionStanford 3-City studyCan defend yourself from critics |
| Effective Interventions are Ethical | Run control group through intervention after collecting follow-up dataWhat will happen when you remove your intervention?What is your intervention preventing from happening in the community? |
| Who is healthier? | Females are sick more often, but with less serious ailmentsMales are sick less often, but with more serious ailments |
| Why are there health differences between males and females? | BiologyHealth behaviorsUtilization of the medical systemSocial support, stress, and social roles |
| Sources of Biological Differences | Hormone differencesRecessive x chromosomeDifferent parts |
| Repercussions of men’s health being the standard | Some illnesses are noticed late in womenPatterns of health that differ in women are considered problematicThings that are unhealthy in men are assumed to be unhealthy in womenDrugs don’t work as well in women |
| Negative Aging Stereotypes | Pervasive in our cultureEven children know themReinforced constantlyLikely to be internalized while youngStronger than negative stereotypes of any other stigmatized group.More powerful than actual experience |
| Aging Self-Stereotypes | As people get older they continue to believe aging stereotypes – they become self-stereotypes.In-group preference not seen for old people: Their attitudes toward old people are just as negative as young people’s attitudes toward old people. |
| Cross-Cultural Studies of Aging Stereotypes | Positive stereotypes: Mainland ChinaIn between stereotypes: Deaf AmericaNegative stereotypes: Hearing AmericaResultBest memory: Mainland ChineseMiddle memory: Deaf AmericansWorst memory: Hearing Americans |
| Found that negative age primes led to: | Found that negative primes led to:Worse memory performanceSlower walking speedsLess willingness to accept life-prolonging medical treatmentGreater cardiovascular stress response |
| People with negative views of aging: | Did worse on hearing testsWere less likely to engage in preventive health behaviors Died sooner (lived 15 more years compared to 22 more for people with positive views of aging) |
| What is Culture? | Culture is the criteria we use to delineate social groups. |
| Why Do Health Psychologists Care About Culture? | There are pronounced and persistent group differences in mental and physical health based on culture.These differences are called Health Disparities.gender, race and ethnicity, education, income, disability, geography, or sexual orientation |
| Examples of Health Disparities | Black people and Ethnic Hawaiians are more likely to get lung cancer than White people.Black people and Hispanic people are less likely to get melanoma than White people. |
| Early Notice of Health Disparities by Culture | Since every social class must have its own diseases determined by the different mode of living, we must expect that under any form of government the rich and the poor will have diseases peculiar to them. |
| Opposite of Health Disparities: Health Equity | Everyone has a fair opportunity to attain their full health potential and no one should be disadvantaged from achieving it.For equal need, everyone has equal access to available care, equal utilization of care, and equal quality of care. |
| Health Disparities: History | 1985: Heckler Report: 60,000 excess deaths per year because of health disparities.1999: Surgeon General David Satcher leads NIH to adopt a definition of health disparities.2000: Minority Health and Health Disparities Research and Education Act ($$) |
| SES and health | 1924: Taxpayers had a lower death rate than non-taxpayers 1900s: The larger your grave marker, the longer you lived. |
| What accounts for the SES-health relationship? | Not due to less access to health care.Not because bad health leads to lower SESStress?? |
| Allostatic Load and SES | an accumulation of wear and tear on all your organ systems in response to repeated efforts to cope with stress. |
| best way to operationalize race? | Self-reported race is probably best way to operationalize race |
| According to OMB, there are only two ethnic groups: | 1. Latino/Hispanic 2. Non-Latino/Hispanic White |
| Less Healthy Races | African AmericansNative Americans and Alaska NativesSome Latino subgroupsE.g., Dominicans, Puerto RicansSome Pacific Islander subgroupsE.g., Filipinos, Hawaiians |
| More Healthy Races | Some Asian subgroupsE.g., Chinese, JapaneseCaucasiansSome Latino subgroupsE.g., Cubans, Mexicans |
| Life Expectancy as of 2000 | 68.3 yrs African males v. 74.8 yrs Caucasian males |
| Infant Mortality | THE most stringent indicator of the health and well-being of a societyU.S. ranked 43 worldwide, 6.50/1,000 live births |
| Problems Generalizing About the Health of Different Racial or Ethnic Groups | Confounding of socioeconomic status (SES) with ethnicity/race. Categories are broad and heterogeneous3. Groups differ in the degree of exposure to and identification with mainstream American culture |
| Explanations for Black/White Diffs | More likely to be poor, homeless, incarcerated, on welfare, victims of violence. Less likely to be insured Less likely to seek treatmentMore likely to use emergency and inpatient servicesUnderrepresented in physical and mental health research |
| Acculturation | The process of cultural exchange resulting from intercultural contact |
| Acculturative Stress: | The psychological and social demand of negotiating multiple cultural identities |
| The more acculturation: | More smokingMore alcohol consumptionMore other substance useLess cancer screeningMore premature births and low birthweightMore hypertensionMore obesityMore HIV/AIDS |
| Paradox: | Newer immigrants tend to have fewer resources, but better health outcomes |
| White Americans v. white British people | Americans were less healthy, and the effect was largeNot due to self-reporting biases or to smoking, alcohol use, or obesity |
| US spends more per person on health care What accounts for this? | We have bad quality careWe are more stressedOur social safety net is not good |
| Culture is to society what memory is to | individuals |
| Culture tells us n shapes what? | Tells us what has worked in the past Shapes our cognitive scripts for viewing environment and self |
| Features of Type A Personality | Exaggerated sense of time urgencyCompetitive and ambitiousHostile and aggressive |
| Freud’s Catharsis: | People will be relieved or cleansed by expressing negative emotions. |
| Expression of anger | Expression of hostile emotions (anger and cynicism) is more reliably associated with cardiovascular reactivity than the state/feeling of anger |
| How to alter Type A behavior | Progressive muscle relaxation: reduces physiological arousal, increases relaxationSelf-talk: repeating calming statements to yourself to prevent yourself from erupting in anger |
| Optimism and Health | Compared to pessimists, optimists:are more likely to use health-promoting behaviors are less likely to engage in risky behaviorsare less likely to be distressed by physical symptomsare more likely to use effective coping techniques |
| Turning Pessimists into Optimists | Have pessimists write about a positive future for a monthCompared to pessimists who are in a no-writing control group:Pessimists who write become more optimisticTheir behaviors change to healthier ones |
| Cancer Prone Personality2nd Century | 2nd Century Galen Melancholy (sad) women more likely to get cancer than sanguine (happy) women. |
| Cancer Prone Personality19th Century | 19th Century Walshe Sanguine women more likely to get cancer than melancholy women. |
| Typical Studies of the Cancer-Prone Personality | Find lots of people with cancerGive them (and people without cancer) a bunch of personality testsSee how the people with and without cancer differVoila! The difference is cancer-proneness |
| Good studies of cancer-prone personality | Get a huge group of healthy people. Give them a lot of personality testsWait until they all die, recording what diseases they get along the waySee which of those personality tests predicts who ended up getting cancer |
| Lawrence LeShan | Transgressions:Squishes all cancer patients into his theory, even though they don’t fit into it. Created an unfalsifiable theory |
| Bernie Siegel | Transgressions:Argues that we get the cancer we needBases his theory on anecdotes“There are no incurable illnesses, just incurable people” |
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