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Biological Bases
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. |
| cell body | the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center. |
| dendrites | a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body |
| axon | the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. |
| myelin sheath | a fatty tissue layer sentimentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next |
| glial cells (glia) | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. |
| action potential | a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
| refractory period | in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state |
| all-or-none response | a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. 2 |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron,influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. |
| reuptake | a neurotransmitter’s re-absorption by the sending neuron |
| endorphins | “morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. |
| agonist | a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action. |
| antagonist | a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action |
| nervous system | the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord. |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. |
| nerves | bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs |
| sensory (afferent) neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord |
| motor (efferent) neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. |
| inter-neurons | neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. |
| autonomic nervous system (ANS) | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. |
| reflex | a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
| endocrine system | the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
| hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. |
| adrenal glands | a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. |
| pituitary gland | the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands |
| lesion | tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. |
| (MEG)-magnetoencephalography | a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity. |
| CT (computed tomography) scan | a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure. (Also called CAT scan |
| PET (positron emission tomography) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. |
| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computergenerated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy |
| fMRI (functional MRI) | a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure |
| brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
| thalamus | the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. |
| reticular formation | a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. |
| cerebellum | the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory |
| limbic system | neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. |
| amygdala | two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. |
| hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. |
| hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events. |
| cerebral cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center |
| frontal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. |
| parietal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. |
| occipital lobes | e portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas 339 that receive information from the visual fields |
| temporal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| somatosensory cortex | an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
| plasticity | the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. |
| neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| split brain | a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. |
| consciousness | our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment |
| cognitive neuroscience | the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). |
| dual processing | the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. |
| blindsight | a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. |
| parallel processing | processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems. |
| sequential processing | processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems. |
| behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. |
| heredity | the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring. |
| environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. |
| DNA | a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. |
| genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing protein |
| genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosome |
| identical (monozygotic) twins | develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. |
| fraternal (dizygotic) twins | develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment |
| heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
| interaction | the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). |
| molecular genetics | the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. |
| molecular behavior genetics | the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior. |
| epigenetics | above” or “in addition to” (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. |
| natural selection | the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. |
| mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
| social script | a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations |
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