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Pyschology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Unconditional Stimulus | Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism |
| Unconditioned Response | a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned Stimulus | a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism |
| Conditioned Response | a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned Taste Aversion | when you pair eating a food with nausea/vomiting, you develop an immediate and severe aversion to the taste of that food, whether or not the food is the reason that you vomited. |
| Operant Conditioning | a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether that behavior will be repeated in the future |
| Law of Effect | the principle that behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated. |
| Reinforcer | any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it. |
| Punisher | any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it |
| Learned Helplessness | an organism forced to ensure aversive stimuli, or stimuli that are painful or otherwise unpleasant, becomes unable or unwilling to avoid subsequent encounters with those stimuli, even if they are escapable |
| positive reinforcement | a stimulus is presented that increases the likelihood of that behavior |
| positive punishment | a stimulus is presented that decreases the likelihood of that behavior |
| negative reinforcement | a stimulus is taken away that increases the likelihood of that behavior |
| negative punishment | a stimulus is taken away that decreases the likelihood of that behavior |
| Ratio Schedule | reward given after certain number of actions |
| Interval Schedule | Reward given after a certain amount of time |
| Fixed Schedule | Reward given every "x" actions or "x" amount of time |
| Variable Schedule | Reward given according to some probability distribution |
| Lateral Hypothalamus | a part of the brain that is involved in a host of functions related to feeding/hunger, pain, regulation of body temperature and blood pressure, and some digestive functions |
| Learning | The acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience, which result in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner |
| fraternal (dizygotic) twins | twins who develop from two different eggs that were fertilized by two different sperm |
| Identical (monozygotic) twins | twins who develop from the splitting of a single egg that was fertilized by a single sperm |
| Shared Environment | those environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household |
| Nonshared Environment | those environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household |
| Correlational | measure at least two variables related to an individual, assess how they are related |
| Experimental | manipulating an independent variable and seeing if it systematically and predictably alter the dependent variable |
| Case Study | a thorough description of a person, including abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual experiences, and whatever else seems relevant |
| Meta-Analysis | when scientists aggregate all the data that has already been collected across the whole field on a particular problem |
| Peer-reviewed | other scientists in the discipline read the paper before it was published and agreed that it met basic scientific standards |
| Basic Science | Researchers attempt to understand core principles of how the world works |
| Applied Science | Researchers attempt to answer a specific question that has direct applications in the real-world |
| High Frequency | Short Wavelength |
| Low Frequency | Long Wavelength |
| Visible Light | the portion of the spectrum with wavelengths that are shorter than infrared waves, but longer than ultraviolet waves |
| Differences in wavelength are perceived as differences in the____ of light | color |
| Differences in the amplitude of the light are perceived as differences in _______ | brightness |
| When objects in the world are hit by light, they only reflect ____ of the light. | some |
| The ______ that we perceive an object to be has to do with how much light it reflects rather than absorbs. | brightness |
| The _____ that we perceive an object to be meanwhile has to do with what wavelengths it reflects rather than absorbs. | color |
| Typically when we talk about sound , rather than using wavelength as the measure of interest we use ____ instead. | frequency |
| Frequency | the number of cycles of the wave that will be completed in one second |
| Lower frequencies are _____ in pitch | lower |
| Higher frequencies are _____ in pitch | higher |
| We perceive higher amplitude sound waves as being _____ than lower amplitude sound waves. | louder |
| the ______ of the wave will determine the pitch, while the _______ will determine the loudness. | frequency, amplitude |
| What is the job of the photoreceptors? | transduction |
| Transduction | the process of converting energy out in the world into electric signals that can be passed to the brain |
| What are the two types of photoreceptors? | Rods and Cones |
| What is the reason photoreceptors are able to transduce light energy into electric energy? | they contain a pigment that changes configuration when it absorbs light |
| Rods | highly sensitive to light , they can absorb and transduce even very small amounts of light. |
| Cones | less sensitive to light, used to support color vision |
| Optic Nerve | the nerve fiber that transmits the information out of the eye and into the brain |
| light comes in to the eye and are absorbed by ______ | photoreceptors |
| photoreceptors transduce the light energy into ______ | electrical energy |
| electrical energy is relayed through different types of cells until it reaches the last layer of the retina - the _______. | ganglion cells |
| The ganglion cells take the energy out of the eye and into the ______ | Brain |
| taste receptor cells themselves are on the ______ | papillae |
| We call a cluster of receptor cells a ________ | Taste Bud |
| _________recognize certain molecules and then when those molecules are recognized, an electrical signal is generated that can be passed to the brain. | Taste Receptors |
| Bottom-up information | the raw information that comes in from the outside world and is transduced by the sensory systems |
| Top-down information | the knowledge that you use to help you interpret the bottom-up information in order to make it meaningful and understandable |
| Perception | the result of combining bottom-up information with the top-down information |
| Primary visual cortex is found in the ______ lobe of the brain. | occipital |
| Primary auditory cortex is located in the _______ lobe of the brain. | temporal |
| Critical Period | a maturational stage in the lifespan of an organism during which the nervous system is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli |
| Sensation | simple stimulation of a sense organ |
| Objects that reflect a greater percentage of the light that hits them are perceived (all things being equal) as ______ | lighter |
| Objects that reflect a lesser percentage of the light that hits them are perceived (all things being equal) as ________ | darker |
| Objects that are perceived as a given color, reflect only a _______of the wavelengths that strike them The remaining wavelengths are absorbed. | sub-set |
| Primary visual cortex (V1) is ______ (there’s one in each hemisphere). The left V1 processes the right side of space and the right V1 processes the left side of space. | bilateral |
| Damage to V1 will cause ____ | blindness |
| Selective Attention | the ability to select from many factors or stimuli and to focus on only the one that you want while filtering out other distractions. |
| sustained attention | the ability to focus on one specific task for a continuous amount of time without being distracted. |
| Alternating Attention | the ability to switch your focus back and forth between tasks that require different cognitive demands. |
| Divided attention | the ability to process two or more responses or react to two or more different demands simultaneously. "Multi-tasking" |
| Early selection model | attention acted BEFORE recognition |
| attenuation model of attention | unattended information is attenuated, but not totally blocked as it passes from sensation to perception/recognition/meaning |
| late selection model | all information reaches the stage of perception/recognition/meaning. |
| inattentional blindness | The failure to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere |
| posterior parietal cortex | an area in the back part (posterior) of the parietal cortex |
| left hemineglect is caused by what? | Damage to the posterior parietal cortex in the right hemisphere |
| left hemineglect | an inability to attend to things on the left side of the world |
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