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Unit 1
Module 3: Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Description | The Case Study The Survey Naturalistic Observation A technique in which one person or group is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles. |
| Correlation | Correlation and Causation Illusory Correlation Perceiving Order in Random Events |
| Experimentation | Exploring Cause and Effect Evaluating Therapies Independent and Dependent Variables |
| Statistical Reasoning | Describing Data Making Inferences |
| Case Study | Hope of revealing universal principles; problems with atypical individuals. Hopes to reveal universal truths. Detailed information is gathered; |
| Advantages of Case Studies | Individuals can be studied for long periods of time, can get a lot of information |
| Disadvantages of Case Studies | Objectivity of researcher may be compromised; expensive. |
| Naturalistic Observation | Observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Advantage - real world validity Disadvantage - no cause and effect |
| Survey | A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people. |
| Research Strategies (adv vs. disadv) | Advantage- Large amounts of information can be gathered quickly from many cases at once. Disadvantage – people surveyed must be a representative sample of a larger population; wording |
| Wording Effect | Wording can change the results of a survey. |
| False Consensus Effect | A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. |
| Random Sampling | A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are fake. |
| Random Assignment | Assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random |
| Confounding variables | a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment |
| Descriptive Methods | Case studies, naturalistic observation, and surverys all describe behaviors |
| Correlational Research | Research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether, and to what extent, different variables are related to each other: "How well does A predict B?" Positive correlaitons, negative correlations Correlations helps predict no causation |
| Correlation | When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. |
| Correlational Coefficient | Statistical measure of relationship between two variables. A number that measures the strength of a relationship. Range is from -1 to +1 The relationship gets weaker the closer you get to zero |
| Scatterplots | Graph compromised of points generated by values of two variables. The slope of points depicts the direction, and the amount of scatter the strength of relationship. |
| Positive correlation | The variables go in the SAME direction |
| Negative Correlation | The variables go in opposite directions. |
| Illusory Correlation | The perception of a relationshiop (perceived non-existent correlation where none exists. It is a random coincidence Ex: Parents conceive children after adoption. |
| Experimentation | An investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. |
| Cause and Effect | Like other sciences, experimentation forms the backbone of research in psychology. Experiments isolate causes and their effects |
| Order in Random Events | Given random data we look for order, for meaningful patterns Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order |
| Experimental Condition (group) | The condition of an experiment that exposes particpants to the treatmnet, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
| Independent Variable | Independent variable is a factor, manipulated by the experimenter, and whose effect is being studied It is the variable that is changed It is the cause variable |
| Dependent Variable | A research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether, and tDependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to independent variable. In psychology it is usually a behavior or a mental process. It is the variable that is measured. |
| Double-blind procedure | Neither the particpants nor the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to. |
| Control Condition (group) | Control Condition (group) Placebo, baseline The condition (or group) in an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment (group) Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. They do not receive the treatment |
| Random Assignment | Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups. |
| Placebo effect | Experimental results caused by expectations alone Any effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance or condition which is assumed to be an active ingredient |
| Experimentation | A summary of steps during experimentation |
| Confounding variables | Another variable in a study may confuse or contradict the research results Ex: Placebo effect, order effects, experimenter bias, hawthorne effect |
| Order effects | Suppose you play a series of musical excerpts and ask listeners to rate how well they like each excerpt. It turns out that the first musical excerpt will always tend to be more highly rated than the subsequent excerpts. |
| Hawthorne Effect | But even the control group may experience changes. Just the fact that you know you are in an experiment can cause change. |
| Experimenter Bias | experimenters allow their expectations to affect their interpretation of observations |
| The need for statistics | Understanding basic statistics is beneficial for everyone. Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data and let us see what the unaided eye misses |
| Descriptive Statistics | Meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation can lead to incorrect conclusions. |
| Measures of Central Tendency | Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by their number. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution. Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. |
| Measures of Variation | Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean. |
| Statistical Reasoning | A. Describing data B. Measures of central tendency C. Measures of variation D. Characteristics of the normal curve |
| Distributions | Outliers skew distributions. If group has one high score, the curve has a positive skew (contains more low scores) If a group has a low outlier, the curve has a negative skew (contains more high scores) |
| Making inferences | A statistical statement of how likely an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance. Calculations that estimate the likelihood that you would get similar results if you repeated the study; i.e. your results are NOT a fluke |
| When is an observed difference reliable? | Representative samples are better than biased samples. Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones. More cases are better than fewer cases. |
| When is a difference significant? (Statistical Significance = ss) | When sample averages are reliable, and when the differences between them is relatively large, the difference has SS Psychologists will not make much out of a finding unless the odds of it occurring by chance are less than 5% T his is called the p value. |
| Inferential Statistics | Calculations that estimate the likelihood that you would get similar results if you repeated the study; i.e. your results are NOT a fluke or random, atypical event |
| Ethics in animal research | Reasons for using animals in research Safeguards for animal use |
| Ethics in human research | Ethics in human research Informed consent Protect from harm and discomfort Maintain confidentiality Debriefing (the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants) |
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hibba_rash
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