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Psychology
Psychology: The Science Of The Mind
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Psychology | The scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
| Structuralism | Wilhelm Wundt's approach; focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities |
| Introspection | A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus |
| Functionalism | An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does—the functions of mental activity—and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments |
| Gestalt Psychology | An approach that focuses on the organization of perception through a series of principles describing how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
| Neuroscience Perspective | The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions |
| Psychodynamic Perspective | The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control |
| Behavioral Perspective | The view that looks at the behavior itself as the problem |
| Cognitive Perspective | The view that suggests that people’s thoughts and beliefs are a central component of abnormal behavior |
| Humanistic Perspective | The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior |
| Free Will | The idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual |
| Determinism | The idea that people’s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control |
| Scientific Method | The approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest |
| Theory | Broad explanations and predictions concerning observations of interest |
| Hypothesis | A prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in way that allows it to be tested |
| Operational Definition | The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed |
| Descriptive Research | An approach to research designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior |
| Archival Research | Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis |
| Naturalistic Observation | Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation |
| Survey Research | Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes |
| Case Study | An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people |
| Variables | Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way |
| Correlational Research | Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated” |
| Experiment | The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation |
| Experimental Manipulation | The change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation |
| Treatment | The manipulation implemented by the experimenter |
| Experimental Group | Any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment |
| Control Group | A group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment |
| Independent Variable | The variable that is manipulated by an experimenter |
| Dependent Variable | The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation (handling) of the independent variable |
| Random Assignment to Condition | A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone |
| Replication | Research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings |
| Informed Consent | A document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve |
| Experimental Bias | Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment |
| Placebo | A false treatment, such as a pill, “drug,” or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient |
| Behavioral Neuroscientists (Biopsychologists) | Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior |
| Neurons (Nerve Cells) | The basic elements of the nervous system |
| Dendrite | A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons |
| Axon | The part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons |
| Terminal Buttons | Small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other neurons |
| Myelin Sheath | A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the neuron |
| All-Or-None Law | The rule that neurons are either on or off |
| Resting State | The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about −70 millivolts within a neuron |
| Action Potential | An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive |
| Mirror Neurons | Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior |
| Synapse | The space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages |
| Neurotransmitters | Chemicals that communicate messages from one neuron to another neuron across the synapse |
| Excitatory Messages | Chemical messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon |
| Inhibitory Messages | Chemical messages that prevent or decrease the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire |
| Reuptake | The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button |
| Central Nervous System (CNS) | The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord |
| Spinal Cord | A bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body |
| Reflex | An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus |
| Sensory (Afferent) Neurons | Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system |
| Motor (Efferent) Neurons | Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands |
| Interneurons | Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two |
| Peripheral Nervous System | The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body |
| Somatic Division | The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs |
| Autonomic Division | The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs |
| Sympathetic Division | The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat; fight-or-flight response |
| Parasympathetic Division | The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended |
| Behavioral Genetics | The study of the effects of heredity on behavior |
| Endocrine System | A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream |
| Hormones | Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body |
| Pituitary Gland | The major component of the endocrine system, or “master gland,” which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system |
| Central Core | The “old brain,” which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates |
| Cerebellum | The part of the brain that controls bodily balance |
| Reticular Formation | The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons and made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily arousal |
| Thalamus | The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses |
| Hypothalamus | A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains homeostasis and produces and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior |
| Limbic System | The part of the brain that includes the amygdala and hippocampus, and controls eating, aggression, and reproduction |
| Cerebral Cortex | The “new brain,” responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes |
| Lobes | The four major sections of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital |
| Motor Area | The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement |
| Sensory Area | The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of the tissue allocated to that sense |
| Association Areas | One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech |
| Neuroplasticity | The brain’s ability to change throughout the life span through the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas |
| Hemispheres | Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location |
| Lateralization | The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language |
| Biofeedback | A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles |
| Sensation | The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy |
| Perception | The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense organs and brain |
| Stimulus | Physical energy that produces a response in a sense organ |
| Psychophysics | The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them |
| Absolute Threshold | The smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for the stimulus to be detected |
| Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference) | The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred |
| Weber's Law | A basic law of psychophysics stating that a just noticeable difference is in constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus |
| Adaptation | An adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli |
| Retina | The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain |
| Rods | Thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light |
| Cones | Cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light |
| Optic Nerve | A bundle of ganglion axons that carry visual information to the brain |
| Feature Detection | The activation of neurons in the cortex by visual stimuli of specific shapes or patterns |
| Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision | The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths |
| Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision | The theory that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other |
| Sound | The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration |
| Eardrum | The part of the ear that vibrates when sound hits it |
| Semicircular Canals | Three tubelike structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain |
| Skin Senses | The senses of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain |
| Gate-Control Theory of Pain | The theory that particular nerve receptors lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain |
| Gestalt Laws of Organization | Principles describing how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
| Top-Down Processing | Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations |
| Bottom-Up Processing | Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole |
| Depth Perception | The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance |
| Apparent Movement | The perception that a stationary object is moving |
| Visual Illusions | Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception |
Created by:
KaleighMichelle
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