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Psychology
Motivation, Emotion, Development, And Personality
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Motivation | The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms |
| Instincts | Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned |
| Instinct Approaches to Motivation | The view that people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival |
| Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation | Theories suggesting that a lack of a basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement (in this case, the thirst drive) |
| Drive | Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need |
| Homeostasis | The body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state |
| Arousal Approaches to Motivation | The belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary |
| Incentive Approaches to Motivation | Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives |
| Cognitive Approaches to Motivation | Theories suggesting that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts and expectations—their cognitions |
| Self-Actualization | A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in their own unique way |
| Obesity | Body weight that is more than 20 percent above the average weight for a person of a particular height |
| Weight Set Point | The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain |
| Metabolism | The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body |
| Anorexia Nervosa | A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual |
| Bulimia | A disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means |
| Androgens | Male sex hormones secreted by the testes |
| Genitals | The male and female sex organs |
| Estrogens | Class of female sex hormones |
| Progesterone | A female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries |
| Ovulation | The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries |
| Extramarital Sex | Sexual activity between a married person and someone who is not his or her spouse |
| Need for Achievement | A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story |
| Need for Affiliation | An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people |
| Need for Power | A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be seen as a powerful individual |
| Emotions | Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior |
| James-Lange Theory of Emotion | The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation (“I feel sad because I am crying”) |
| Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion | The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus |
| Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion | The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues |
| Facial-Affect Program | Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression |
| Facial-Feedback Hypothesis | The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions |
| Developmental Psychology | The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life |
| Nature-Nurture Issue | The issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior |
| Cross-Sectional Research | A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time |
| Longitudinal Research | A research method that investigates behavior as participants age |
| Sequential Research | A research method that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research by considering a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time |
| Chromosomes | Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information |
| Genes | The parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted |
| Zygote | The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm |
| Embryo | A developed zygote that has a primitive heart, a brain, and other organs |
| Fetus | A developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth |
| Age of Viability | The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks) |
| Teratogens | Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect |
| Neonate | A newborn child |
| Reflex | An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus |
| Attachment | The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual |
| Authoritarian Parents | Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children |
| Permissive Parents | Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although warm, require little of them |
| Authoritative Parents | Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them |
| Uninvolved Parents | Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached |
| Temperament | The basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life |
| Psychosocial Development | Development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society |
| Trust-Versus-Mistrust Stage | According to Erik Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust |
| Autonomy-Versus-Shame-and-Doubt Stage | The period which, according to Erik Erikson, toddlers (ages 1½ to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected |
| Initiative-Versus-Guilt Stage | According to Erik Erikson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action |
| Industry-Versus-Inferiority Stage | According to Erik Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children ages 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable |
| Cognitive Development | The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience |
| Sensorimotor Stage | According to Jean Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols |
| Object Permanence | The awareness that objects—and people—continue to exist even if they are out of sight |
| Preoperational Stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development |
| Egocentric Thought | A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective |
| Principle of Conservation | The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects |
| Concrete Operational Stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism |
| Formal Operational Stage | According to Jean Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought |
| Information Processing | The way in which people take in, use, and store information |
| Metacognition | An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes |
| Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) | According to Lev Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own |
| Adolescence | The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood |
| Puberty | The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys |
| Identity-Versus-Role-Confusion Stage | According to Erik Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one’s unique qualities |
| Identity | The distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of |
| Intimacy-Versus-Isolation Stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships |
| Generativity-Versus-Stagnation Stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society |
| Ego-Integrity-Versus-Despair Stage | According to Erik Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life’s accomplishments and failures |
| Menopause | The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile |
| Genetic Preprogramming Theories of Aging | Theories that suggest that our DNA genetic code includes a built-in time limit into the production of human cells and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time |
| Wear-and-Tear Theories of Aging | Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently |
| Alzheimer’s Disease | A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities |
| Disengagement Theory of Aging | A theory that suggests that aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels |
| Activity Theory of Aging | A theory that suggests that the elderly who are more successful while aging are those who maintain the interests and activities they had during middle age |
| Personality | The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person |
| Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality | Approaches that assume that personality is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness and over which they have no control |
| Psychoanalytic Theory | Sigmund Freud’s theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality |
| Unconscious | A part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware |
| Id | The instinctual and unorganized part of personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses |
| Ego | The rational, logical part of personality that attempts to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world |
| Superego | The part of personality that harshly judges the morality of our behavior |
| Fixations | Conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur |
| Psychosexual Stages | Developmental periods that children pass through during which they encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges |
| Oral Stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from birth to age 12 to 18 months, in which an infant’s center of pleasure is the mouth |
| Anal Stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from age 12 to 18 months to 3 years of age, in which a child’s pleasure is centered on the anus |
| Phallic Stage | According to Sigmund Freud, a period beginning around age 3 during which a child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals |
| Oedipal Conflict | A child’s sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent |
| Identification | The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person’s behavior and adopting (taking on) similar beliefs and values |
| Latency Period | According to Sigmund Freud, the period between the phallic stage and puberty during which children’s sexual concerns are temporarily put aside |
| Genital Stage | According to Sigmund Freud, the period from puberty until death, marked by mature sexual behavior |
| Defense Mechanisms | In Freudian theory, unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves and others |
| Repression | The primary defense mechanism in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious |
| Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts | Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of its major points |
| Collective Unconscious | According to Carl Jung, a common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even nonhuman ancestors from the distant past |
| Archetypes | According to Carl Jung, universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience |
| Traits | Consistent, habitual personality characteristics and behaviors that are displayed across different situations |
| Trait Theory | A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality |
| Social Cognitive Approaches to Personality | Theories that emphasize the influence of a person’s cognitions—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as observation of others’ behavior, in determining personality |
| Self-Efficacy | Belief in one’s personal capabilities. Self-efficacy underlies people’s faith in their ability to carry out a particular behavior or produce a desired outcome |
| Self-Esteem | The component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative self-evaluations |
| Biological and Evolutionary Approaches to Personality | Theories that suggest that important components of personality are inherited |
| Temperament | The basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life |
| Humanistic Approaches to Personality | Theories that emphasize people’s innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of functioning |
| Unconditional Positive Regard | An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does |
| Psychological Tests | Standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves |
| Self-Report Measures | A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about a sample of their behavior |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 RF (MMPI-2 RF) | A widely used self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviors |
| Test Standardization | A technique used to validate questions in personality tests by studying the responses of people with known diagnoses |
| Projective Personality Tests | ests in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it in order to infer information about their personality |
| Rorschach Test | A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story |
| Behavioral Assessment | Direct measures of an individual’s behavior used to describe personality characteristics |
| Intelligence | The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges |
| G or G-Factor | The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence |
| Fluid Intelligence | Intelligence that reflects the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve problems, and find patterns |
| Crystallized Intelligence | The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education, reflecting the facts that we have learned |
| Theory of Multiple Intelligences | Howard Gardner’s theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence |
| Practical Intelligence | According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living |
| Emotional Intelligence | The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions |
| Intelligence Tests | Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence |
| Mental Age | The average age of individuals who achieve a particular level of performance on a test |
| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | A score that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages |
| Intellectual Disability | A disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills |
| Fetal Alcohol Syndrome | The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy |
| Familial Intellectual Disability | Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is a history of intellectual disability among family members |
| Intellectually Gifted | The 2 to 4 percent of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130 |
| Culture-Fair IQ Test | A test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group |
| Heritability | A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors |
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