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patho exam1
cancer, stress, fe, a/b, hematology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| sodium normal level | 135-145 |
| hyponatremia level | <135 |
| hypovolemic hyponatremia causes | renal (adrenal insufficience, osmotic, diuresis, diuretic use); nonreal (GI tract losses w excessive sweating, diarrhea, vomiting) |
| hypervolemic hyponatremia causes | excess water, sodium is diluted |
| hypovolemic hyponatremia symptoms | thirst, hypotension, tachycardia |
| hypervolemic hyponatremia symptoms | headache, lethargy, confusion, muscle cramps; cell swelling (leading to seizure and coma) |
| hypernatremia level | >145 |
| hypernatremia causes | water loss or intake of salt wo water |
| hypernatremia symptoms | cells become dehydrated and shrink, edema, weight gain, hypertension (water retention), dec salivation, tachycardia, flushed skin, dec reflexes, weak pulse (water loss) |
| most at risk for hypernatremia | elderly and infants |
| potassium normal level | 3.5-5 |
| hypokalemia level | <3.5 |
| hypokalemia causes | diuretic therapy, dietary deficiencies, vomiting, diarrhea, hyperaldostronism, salt wasting kidney disease, GI surgery, alkalosis and laxative abuse |
| hypokalemia symptoms | anorexia, nausea, vomiting, sluggish bowel, cardiac arrhythmias (prolonged PR interval, flattened T wave, prominent U wave), postural hypotension, muscle fatigue, weakness, leg cramps |
| potassium is found in | orange juice, banana, dried fruits, meat |
| hyperkalemia level | >5.2 |
| hyperkalemia causes | excess intake of K, aldosterone deficieny, Na depletion, acidosis, tissue trauma, burns, extreme exercise, renal failure, addison's disease (dec cortisol), hemolysis, potassium-sparing diuretics ACE inhibitors |
| hyperkalemia symptoms | nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, intestinal cramping, numbness, tingling of extremities, muscle weakness/cramping, dizziness, apathy, mental confusion, ecg changes (tall peaked T wave, wide QRS complexes) |
| calcium normal range | 8.5-10.5 |
| where is calcium found/functions | bone/teeth, blood clotting and neuromuscular signaling |
| hypocalcemia level | <8.5 |
| hypocalcemia causes | hypoparathyroidism, malabsportion syndrome, hypomagnesia, hyperphosphatemia, renal failure, insufficient vitamin d, hypoalbuminemia, diuretic therapy, diarrhea, acute pancreatitis, gastric surgery, massive blood transfusions |
| hypocalcemia symptoms | porethesias around mouth, hands and feet, muscle spams (tetany), laryngeal spasm, seizures, hypotension, arrythmias, chronic hypocalcemia (bone pain and fragility), chrosteks sign and trousseaus sign |
| chrosteks sign | cheek/facial spasm |
| trousseaus sign | wrist/carpal spam T |
| tetany | muscle spasms |
| hypercalcemia level | >10 |
| hypercalcemia causes | hyperparathyroidism, cancer, excessive Ca in diet, excessive vitamin d, immobility, hypophosphatemia, diuretics, ace inhibitors, lithium therapy, malignancy of bone or blood |
| hypercalcemia symptoms | muscle flaccidity, proximal muscle weakness of lower extremities, bone tenderness and weakness, dec neuromuscular activity of bowel (constipation), high ca in urine, hyperreflexia (muscles twitch), tongue fasciculations |
| phosphate normal level | 2.5-4.5 |
| phosphate found/function | bone, rbc, enzymatic processes, formation of atp, acid-base balance |
| hypophosphatemia level | <2.5 |
| hypophosphatemia causes | ingestions of excess antacids (al + ca), severe diarrhea, lack of vitamin d, hypercalcemia, alkalosis, hyperparathroidism, diabetic ketoacidosis |
| hypophosphatemia symptoms | tremors, lack of coordination, paraesthesias, hyporeflexia, anorexia, dysphagia, confusion, ataxia, muscle weakness, joint stiffness, bone pain, osteomalacia |
| hyperphosphatemia level | >4.5 |
| hyperphosphatemia cause | kidney failure |
| hyperphosphatemia symptoms | hypocalcmemia, paraesthesia, muscle cramps, tetany, hypotension, cardiac arrhythmias |
| magnesium normal range | 1.8-3 |
| magnesium found | in bone |
| hypomagnesemia levels | <1.5 |
| hypomagnesemia causes | prolonged diarrhea, malnutrition, malabsorption, alcoholism/cirrhosis, laxative abuse, inc renal excretion of mg, dka, sepsis, burns and wounds need debridement |
| hypomagnesemia symptoms | neuromuscular manifestations like tetany, chvosteks sign, trousseaus sign, cardiac arrhythmias, ecg changes like hypokalemia (u wave), respiratory muscle paralysis, heart block, coma |
| hypermagnesemia level | >2.5 |
| hypermagnesemia causes | kidney failure, excessive use mg in antacids and laxatives, untreated diabetic ketoacidosis, and excessive mg infusion |
| hypermagnesemia symptoms | inhibits acetylcholine release and cause diminished neuromuscular function, hyporeflexia, muscle weakness, cardiovascular effects (hypotension and arrhythmias), severely high mg levels can cause cardiac arrest, lethargy and confusion |
| pH normal ranges | 7.35-7.45 |
| dec pH | acidosis |
| inc pH | alkalosis |
| pCO2 range | 35-45 |
| HCO3- range | 22-26 |
| carbonic acid/bicarbonate equation | CO2 + H2O<->H2CO3<->HCO3- + H+ |
| inc co2 | shifts toward inc h and inc carbonic acid (more acidic) |
| buffer systems | protein, phosphate, carbonic acid-bicarbonate |
| respiratory tract as buffer for regulating co2 | maintains pH of blood and adjusts co2 (outgasses) |
| role of kidneys as buffer for regulating H+ and HCO3- | cells reabsorb HCO3- from urine back to blood and secrete H+ into urine |
| respiratory failure bc of respiratory acidosis | failure of lungs to remove or exhale co2 from body fluids as fast as it is produced by cells pH<7.35, PCO2>45, HCO3-<22 |
| anxiety leads to hyperventilation syndrome leading to repiratory alkalosis | loss of co2 from lungs faster than produced by cells pH>7.45, PCO2<35, HCO3->26 |
| metabolic acidosis causes | lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis of diabetes, renal failure causing failure acid waste build up pH<7.35, PCO2<35, HCO3-<22 |
| compensation that occurs in metabolic acidosis by respiratory compensation | hyperventilation to dec arterial PCO2 |
| chemoreceptors affect respiratory rate and depth | inc rates of firing that cause inc inspiratory activity and inc pulmonary ventilation |
| metabolic alkalosis causes | excess loss of acids, unrelated to CO2, kidneys and GI tract loss, inc bicarb levels, post-code excess bicarb iv pH>7.45, PCO2>45, HCO3->26 |
| respiratory system and kidneys compensate for metabolic alkalosis | lungs dec ventilation to inc co2, kidneys, excrete hco3-, retain h+, kidney reabsorb h+ instead of usual K+ |
| effects of acidosis | h+ into cells k+ out of cells |
| effects of alkalosis | k+ into cells leading to hypokalemia |
| normal anion gap range | 8-16 |
| anion gap | only in metabolic acidosis, ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, chronic kidney disease |
| adult body weight is water | 60% |
| where is fluid located | intracellular fluids and extracellular fluids |
| extracellular fluid found in | saline as Na and H2O in plasma, and interstitital fluids bw cells and capillaries |
| extracellular fluid is | more easily lost |
| albumin | responsible for movement of water into and out of vessels |
| osmolarity | measures particle per L of solution |
| isotonic | equal distribution of sodium and water in ICF and ECF |
| why give isotonic solution to patient | raise blood pressure |
| ringer's lactate | similar physiological constituents as found in blood |
| hypotonic | lower sodium level/more water than what is found inside the cell |
| why give hypotonic solution to patient | avoid dehydration |
| hypertonic | higher sodium level/less water than what if found outside cell in blood vessel |
| why give hypertonic to patient | shift fluids into bloodstream to dilute electrolytes |
| filtration | solid particles in liquid or gas fluid removed by filter that permits fluid to pass thru but retains solid particles |
| sodium-potassium pump | atpase pump to maintain na as ecf and k as icf |
| na | fluid balance and osmotic pressure |
| k | neurotransmitter excitability and acid-base balance |
| hydrostatic pressure | pressure from heart in arteries that pushes water out of capillaries into isf |
| osmotic and oncotic pressure | help pull water back into vessels from isf on venule side of capillary |
| capillary hypertension | condition caused by excess fluid left in interstitial space due to problem with hydrostatic, oncotic, or osmotic pressures |
| raas hormones | renin, angiotensin 1, angiotensin 2, and aldosterone |
| angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2 | where blood pressure regulation starts |
| natriuresis | excretion of large amount of na and h2o by kidneys in response to excess ecf volume |
| antidiuretic hormone | hormone stimulated by posterior pituitary gland when blood pressure is low and causes kidney to retain water in blood to help elevate blood pressure |
| atrial natriuretic peptide (anp) | hormone released when there is too much fluid sensed in right atrium of heart which stimulates diuresis |
| diuresis | release of fluid in form of urine from kidneys |
| brain natriuretic peptide (bnp) | hormone released when blood vessels in brain and left ventricle of heart sense excess fluid in vessels which stimulates diuresis (diagnoses left-sided heart failure) |
| edema | swelling when there is excess fluid in isf and icf |
| hypoalbuminemia | liver failure, protein malnutrition |
| dependent edema | collection of venous blood in lower extremities |
| pitting edema | pressure is applied to small area and an indentation persists after release of pressure, measured +1,+2 or +3 |
| transudate | serious filtrate of blood (blister and clear) |
| exudate | contains blood, lymph, proteins, pathogens, inflammatory cells (puss) |
| hypervolemia | bloodstream has excessive amount of water-->heart failure |
| testing for hypervolemia | dilutional hyponatremia (<130) |
| hypervolemia symptoms | rapid weight gain, swelling in arms legs face or abdomen, cramping, headache, stomach bloating, shortness of breath, crackles in lungs, high blood pressure, bounding pulse, heart failure |
| dehydration or hypovolemia | diminished water volume in body |
| body's reaction to dehydration | osmoreceptors stimulate thirst and adh released, vasoconstriction and inc heart rate, raas activated |
| hypovolemia causes | reduced fluid intake, reduced adh or kidneys not responsive to adh, burns, fever, respiration, osmotic diuresis (elevated blood glucose), hypernatremia (inc osmolarity of blood and dec circulating blood volume) |
| hypovolemia symptoms | thirst, dry mucous membranes, sunken eyes, poor skin turgor, hypotension, low urine output, dark-colored urine, weight loss, tachycardia |
| testing for hypovolemia | high blood urea nitrogen (6-24), oliguria, hypernatremia |
| most at risk for hypovolemia or dehydration | older adults and babies |
| volatile acid | co2 combines with water forming carbonic acid |
| nonvolatile (fixed) acids | not converted to co2 (ketones, lactic acid)--> secreted thru kidneys |
| protein buffer system | largest in body |
| phosphate buffer system | regulate intracellular pH |
| carbonic acid buffer system | involves co2, h2co3, h+, hco3, lungs and kidneys utilize to maintain blood pH |
| anion gap | measure gao bw neg and pos charged electrolytes, measured cations minus anions |
| eustress | stress that stimulates a person positively |
| distress | stress that stimulates a person negatively |
| acute stress | response to intermittent, intensity varies in response to stimuli and ends after threat is avoided |
| chronic stress | prolonged activation of stress response to a perceived threat that does not abate rapidly-->illness |
| short term (neural) | protective effect |
| prolonged exposure (endocrine) | diminishing effectiveness |
| alarm stage | activation of cns, sns, and adrenal glands |
| we see this in alarm stage | increased alertness, cardiorespiratory stimulation, pupil dilation, dec gi tract activity, inc blood flow to muscles, inc sweating, dec blood flow to urinary tract |
| hpa axis | hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal gland |
| hypothalamus releases | crf (cortico releasing factor) |
| anterior pituitary releases | acth (adrenal cortico tropin hormone) |
| adrenal cortex releases | cortisol--> inc blood glucose |
| short term and long term of cortisol | short=enhances immune response long=immunosuppression |
| posterior pituitary releases | adh (antidiuretic hormone) |
| adrenal medulla releases | epinephrine and norepinephrine |
| resistance stage | parasympathetic system tries to stop cortisol and get body back to normal |
| exhaustion stage | stress overwhelms body-->can lead to infection |
| allostatic overload | stress exceeds bodys ability to adapt |
| allostatic load | wear and tear on body systems caused by stress rxns |
| tachycardia | fast heart rate |
| hypercapnia | high co2 |
| epinephrine | dilates bronchioles, elevates blood pressure and heart rate, dec production of urine, dec gi tract |
| cortisol | inc glucose, inc blood pressure, dec immune response |
| antidiuretic hormone (adh) | stops water being pulled out of blood |
| norepinephrine | raises heart rate, constricts blood vessels |
| catecholamines | in both hormones and neurotransmitters that are stimulated from sns (adrenal gland) |
| aldosterone | tail of raas system, acts in renal tubules to reabsorb na into blood, h20 follows inc volume |
| ischemia | loss of oxygenated blood flow |
| hem(o) or hemat(o) | blood |
| erythr(o) | red |
| leuk(o) | white |
| an- | without |
| immun | immunity |
| necr | death |
| -ology | study or science of |
| -rrhage | excessive flow |
| -oma | tumor or specified by base |
| -poiesis | production or making |
| -penia | deficiency |
| -cytes | cells |
| -emia | condition of blood |
| -globin | protein |
| -osis | abnormal conditions |
| -philia | abnormal attraction (love of) |
| % of blood is water | 92% |
| % of blood is solute | 8% |
| whole blood is composed of | plasma and serum |
| plasma | aqueous liquid with electrolytes and organic elements |
| serum | clear liquid that remains after blood clots |
| plasma proteins are produced | in liver |
| what plasma protein is not produced in liver | immunoglobulins (plasma cells) |
| what % do plasma proteins make up weight of plasma | 7% |
| role of plasma proteins | regulate processes in the body |
| albumin | carriers, control plasma oncotic pressure (hydrophilic) |
| globulins- alpha | bilirubin and steroids |
| globulins- beta | fe and cu |
| globulins-gamma | immunoglobulins |
| rbc function | oxygen and co2 transport |
| normal range rbc male | 4.5-5.5 million |
| normal range rbc female | 4.0-4.9 million |
| rbc life cycle | 120 days |
| rbc shape | biconcavity or reversible deformity |
| biconcavity | shape provides sa and volume ratio that are optional for gas diffusion and deformity |
| reversible deformity | enables erythrocyte to assume more compact torpedo-like shape, squeeze thru microcirculation, and return to normal |
| rbc contain | hemoglobin |
| rbc is released from _________ and destroyed in ___________ | bone marrow and liver |
| wbc function | defend against infection and remove debris |
| wbc normal range | 4000-10,000 |
| wbc life cycle | 13-20 days |
| wbc contain | granulocytes and arangulocytes |
| granulocytes | neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils |
| neutrophils function | phagocytosis, degranulation, release of nuclear material |
| basophil function | inflammation |
| eosinophils | allergic reaction |
| agranulocytes | monocytes and macrocytes |
| monocytes function | defend against bacteria |
| complete blood count | measures number of rbcs, wbcs, platelets and indices |
| hemoglobin | protein on rbc that carries oxygen to the body's cells ande co2 from organs to the lungs and is measured by the hemoglobin level |
| hbg (hemoglobin) normal range male | 13-18 |
| hbg (hemoglobin) normal range female | 12-16 |
| hct (hematocrit) normal range male | 45-52 |
| hct (hematocrit) normal range female | 37-48 |
| hematocrit | volume or proportion of rbc in the blood |
| mean corpuscular volume (MCV) | measures size of rbc; tells what type of anemia is present in the blood |
| elevation of mcv means | person has macrocytic anemia which is caused by low folate or vitamin b12 deficiency or pernicious anemia |
| mean corpuscular hemoglobin count measures | amount of hemoglobin a single rbc as relates to volume of the cell |
| low mchc means | patients anemic |
| high mchc means | patient has high elevation of hbg in blood |
| mean corpuscular hemoglobin measures | average amount of hemoglobin contained in each rbc |
| if low mch | iron deficiency anemia |
| if high mch | rbcs are too big from pernicious anemia |
| hemostasis | pooling of blood |
| hemostasis roles | vasculature (endothelial cells and subendothelial matrix), platelets, blood proteins (clotting factors) |
| pt (prothrombin time) range | 10-13 |
| prothrombin time measurse | how quickly bleeds and clots (extrinsic and common pathway) |
| inr (international normalized ratio) range | 1.1 or below |
| inr measures | bleeding and clotting w pt for anticoags |
| aptt (activated partial thromboplastin time) range | 30-40 |
| aptt measures | response to anticoagulant therapies, measures intrinsic and common pathway |
| clotting | leads to blockage of blood flow |
| bleeding | loss of blood |
| stage 4 of hemostasis | 4. clots retract (shrink) |
| stage 5 of hemostasis | 5. clots dissolute (clot is destroyed) |
| stage 3 of hemostasis | 3. coagulation cascade is activated by tissue factor |
| stage 2 of hemostasis | 2. platelets form a plug @ site of injury |
| stage 1 of hemostasis | 1. injury to blood vessels leads to narrowing of blood vessels (vasoconstriction) |
| when vessel tissue is damaged platelets are called to are of damage by the release of | van willebrand factor |
| 3 steps of platelet plug or clot formation | adhesion, activation, aggregation |
| adhesion | binding of platelet surface receptor glycoprotein (GPIb to van willebrand factor) |
| activation | smooth spheres change to spiny projections and degranulation (platelet-release rxn) resulting in biochemicals |
| aggregation | facilitated by fibrinogen bridges bw receptors on platelets |
| extrinsic pathway | forming a clot when superificial damage occurs to the epithelial tissue; stimulated by release of x factor; less clotting factors in this branch to get to the common pathway; lab values are used to determine hw long this pathway to respond is inr and pt |
| common pathway | final leg both pathways travel to form a clot; starts w production of phospholipids then combines w platelets to form a scab. starts w factor x stimulating factor v that stimulates prothrombin to thrombin, then fibrinogen to fibrin that forms clot |
| intrinsic pathway | responsible for forimg a clot when damagae occurs thru wall of blood vessel; starts w release of hageman (xii) factor which cascades thru multiple clotting factors until reaches common pathway. lab test that determines how long it takes is aptt |
| lysis | clots must be broken down, otherwise they will continue to grow and block a blood vessel |
| embolus | clots break off and travel in blood to cause a blockage elsewhere in body like brain, heart, or lungs |
| fibrinolysis | clot dissolution |
| if clot is inside blood vessel, ______ is released to begin fibrinyolysis | tpa (tissue plasminogen activator) |
| if clot is extracellular, then _________ is released to start breakdown process | upa (urokinase plasminogen activator) |
| upa and tpa activate | plasmin |
| plasmin along w fibrin degradation products breakdown | fibrin |
| d-dimer test | checks the blood for clots |
| hypercoagulability | inc in blood clots |
| causes of hypercoagulability | pregnancy, oral contraceptives, post-surgery, immobility, congestive heart failure |
| atrial fibrillation cause hypercoagulability in | venous and arterial circulation |
| causes of bleeding | dec # circulating platelets, impaired platelet function |
| thrombocytopenia | dec platelet production, inc platelets in spleen, dec platelet survival |
| 3 types of thrombocytopenia | drug-induced, idiopathic pupura, thrombotic purpura |
| thrombocytopenia symptoms | bleeding in nose, mouth, gi track, and uterine cavity |
| vitamin k in clotting | cofactor in synthesis of clotting factors, if no vitamin k liver produces inactive clotting factor, resulting in abnormal bleeding |
| hemophilia a | deficiency in factor viii, x linked recessive disorder, bleeding occurs w local trauma in soft tissues, gi tract, hip, knee, elbow and ankle joint; leads to swelling and pain in synovium of joint |
| von willebrand | hereditary bleeding disorder from deficiency or defeat in vwf; symptoms: bleeding from nose, mouth, gi tract, excessive menstrual flow, prolonged bleeding time w normal platelet count |
| disseminated intravascular disorder (DIC) | widespread coagulation and bleeding in vascular compartment, complication from pregnancy, sepsis, cancers, shock, trauma, or surgery and hematologic conditions; symptoms: bleeding from all orifices, petechiae, purpura, oozing from punctures to hemorrhage |
| erythropoiesis | rbc production; bone marrow, body needs oxygen; hypoxia |
| bilirubin | protein that breaks down old rbc, liver gets rid of it |
| conjugated bilirubin | water soluble |
| unconjugated bilirubin | insoluble in plasma and attaches to proteins for transport |
| jaundice | yellowing of skin and whites of eyes and indicates dysfunction of bilirubin (too much) |
| anemia | abnormally low number of circulating rbs or hemoglobin, or both; diminished oxygen carrying capacity |
| anemia occurs from | excessive loss of blood (stab wound) or destruction of rbcs (cancer of medicines), deficient rbc production (diet-low iron, b12 deficiency), and inherited disorders (sickle cell) |
| anemia symptoms | fatigue, weakness, dyspnea (difficulty breathing), angina, headache, faintness, dim vision, pallor of skin, nail beds, tachycardia, palpitations, leg cramps |
| leukopenia | dec in leukocytes |
| neutropenia | dec in neutrophils |
| agranulocytosis | absence of neutrophils |
| neutropenia symptoms | fever, mouth ulcer, sore throat, susceptibility to infection |
| hodgkin disease | lymphoma in single node or chain of nodes *Reed-sternberg cells |
| who do you see hodgkin disease in | 15-40 or >55 |
| hodgkin disease symptoms | painless nodes above diaphragm, cough, dyspnea, fever, night sweats, weight loss, pruritis |
| non-hodgkin disease | lymphoma originates @ extranodal sites and spreads to contiguous nodes >60 |
| non-hodgkin disease symptoms | fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss |
| proliferation | constantly replicating |
| primary hemostasis | platelet aggregation |
| secondary hemostasis | fibrin formation |
| purpura | blood collecting under skin |
| petichiae | blood speckles |
| labile cells | hair cells that rapidly divide |
| stable cells | only replicate when necessary liver |
| permanent cells | never return to cell cycle neuron |
| etiology | original cause of cell alteration or disease |
| cellular adaptation | protective mechanism to prevent cellular and tissue harm bc of stress |
| biopsy | extraction of cell samples from an organ or mass of tissue to allow for histological examination |
| atrophy | shrinkage of cell |
| hypertrophy | enlargement of cell |
| hyperplasia | inc # of abnormal cells in response to a stimulus |
| ex hyperplasia | excessive estrogen production--> abnormal menstrual bleeding |
| metaplasia | reversible change where one cell is replaced by another in response to chronic irritaition |
| ex metaplasia | esophagus exposed to reflux from gastroesophageal overtime replaced by stomach cells |
| dysplasia | deranged cell growth of tissue resulting in cells varying in size and shape and organization |
| ex dysplasia | abnormal pap smear w cluster of cells |
| anaplasia | cells that divide rapidly and have little to no resemble to normal cells |
| neoplasia | new growth// cancerous |
| infarction | death of tissue, ischemic necrosis (lack of oxygenated blood to tissues) |
| necrosis | cell death due to injury |
| gangrene | occurs from bacteria that grow in dead tissue |
| wet gangrene | odor, swells, oozes |
| dry gangrene | no blood supply, tissue dries, turns black |
| angiogenesis | formation of new blood vessels |
| cancer | 65+ more @ risk bc more run down, less replication of cells and weaker |
| causes of cancer | viruses, chronic inflammation, radiation, chemicals that contain highly reactive oxygen species (ros) |
| tumor suppressor genes | genes that guard against cancer formation |
| proto-onco genes | control normal cell growth and proliferation |
| oncogenes | mutate from proto-onco genes and allow unrestrained cell division |
| benign | well differentiated cells that resemble normal cells, well defined borders, progressive and slow, do not invade surrounding tissues, does not spread by metastasis |
| malignant | undifferentiated cells that do not resemble normal cells, poorly defined borders, rapid growth rate, invades into other tissues, gains access to blood and lymph channels to metastasize other areas of the body |
| initiation | initial damage to dna |
| promotion | alerted cell divides and passes on abnormal dna |
| progression | benign lesions proliferate and invade adjacent tissue or metastasize |
| T | extent of primary tumpr |
| n | nodes |
| m | metastasis |
| tx, nx, mx | cannot be assessed |
| t0,n0,m0 | no evidence |
| tis | cells only found in area where formed |
| n1,n2,n3 | inc involvement of nodes |
| t1, t2, t3, t4 | inc size |
| m | distant metastasis |
| gx | cannot be assessed |
| g1, g2, g3, g4 | well-->moderately-->poorly-->undifferentiated |
| cancer cells impact almost all body functions bc | tumor cells replace noramally functioning tissues |
| initial symptoms of cancer | reflect primary site of involvement, and as grows it impacts other functions (metastasizes) |
| adenoma | benign tumor, glandular tissue or organ |
| lipoma | derived from fat cells |
| hemangioma | collection of blood vessels in skin or internal organ |
| desmoid tumor | highly invasive but dont metastasize |
| nevi | non-cancerous moles on skin |
| myomas | muscle tumor |
| carcinoma | malignant epithelial cells |
| adenocarcinoma | cancer of glandular or ductal tissue |
| sarcoma | mesenchymal origin (connective tissue, cartilage, and bone) |
| leukemia | cancerous changes in leukocytes |
| lymphoma | cancerous lymphocytes in lymph tissue |
| cachexia | loss of body fat and lean body/weakness |
| anorexia | loss of appetite |
| paraneoplastic syndrome | clinical effects at a body site distant from primary or metastatic cancer caused by tumor (unrelated) |
| 3 ways for cancer to metastasize | in blood, lymph system, surgery |
| primary prevention | focuses on preventing or delaying the onset of cancer -education, minimize exposure, sunscreen, preventative surgeries, and medications |
| secondary prevention | early detection thru screening -pap smears, colonoscopy, psa, annual dermatology screens, history, physical exams |
| tertiary prevention | treatment, management, or prevention of progression to later stages |
| diagnosis of cancer done thru | screening test like pap smear, mammogram, psa, mri, ct scans |
| breast cancer at risk | 1/8 women and men |
| risks for breast cancer | prolonged reproductive life, family history, age >50, hormone replacement theory, obesity, late childbirth, nulliparous (no pregnancies), ashkenazi jewish women, brca 1 and 2 genes, epithelial cell tumors lining ducts or lobules |
| symptoms of breast cancer | singular, nontender firm mass, irregular borders, adhere to skin or chest wall, upper outer quadrant of breast, nipple discharge, swelling of one breast, nipple/skin retraction, peau d'orange=orange swelling, paget's disease of breast=red, crusting nipple |
| biopsy | most definitive way to diagnose cancer (direct visualization of cells) |
| breast cancer diagnostics | mammogram, ultrasound, fine-needle or excisional biopsy, ductogram (nipple discharge), PET scan (dye) |
| screen for breast cancer thru mammogram and screen for prostate cancer around | 50 |
| prostate cancer classified with | gleason and tnm system |
| prostate cancer greatest risk | man >65 |
| no early symptoms for prostate cancer, but late symptoms are | hematuria (blood in urine), azotemia (blood urea nitrogen inc), anemia, anorexia, back pain in vertebra |
| prostate cancer metastasizes to | lymph nodes and bones |
| prostate cancer diagnostics | digital rectal examination (dre) and prostate screening antigen (psa) |
| s phase | division or replication occurs |
| G0 phase | resting phase |
| G1 phase | cell grows larger |
| G2 phase | cell grows again for 2nd time |
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cat9210
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