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Social Psychology II
Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| A basic principle of social cognition | All judgment is relative; how we perceive and think about a person or an event depends on its social context |
| Contrast effects | Changing in how good something looks in comparison to a similar item |
| Social comparison | Process by which we evaluate our abilities, achievements, attitudes, and other attributes through comparison of others |
| Schemas | Mental modules used to organize and retrieve information Stereotypes, categories, expectations, attitudes, and mind-sets |
| Priming | Advocates schemas through subtle cues Colors perceptions is predictable ways through influence of recent current environmental events |
| The power of the priming effect | Early information is more influential than later information |
| Corroboration of the primary effect | First-selection effectiveness |
| Heuristics | Mental operations that guide problem solving and making judgments Require minimal conscious thought |
| Most common heuristics | Representativeness heuristics Availability heuristics Affect heuristics |
| Representativeness heuristics | Focuses on surface similarities to make inferences |
| Availability heuristic | Focuses on tendency to predict an event likelihood or riskiness based on how easy it is to recall specific examples, priming help |
| Affect heuristics | Focuses on mental shortcut influenced by current emotions and used to make decisions |
| When do we use heuristics? | Lacking time Information overload Low personal importance Not enough required knowledge Interference of emotions and wishful thinking |
| Constructive prediction | he emotional impact of certain outcomes determines the goals and risks we are willing to take Overestimation of the impact of future and length of reactions |
| Self-Justification | The desire we have to justify our actions, beliefs, and feelings The example of Sam being hypnotized to start this chapter Participants in Schachter and Singer’s epinephrine study |
| Cognitive dissonance Theory (Festinger) | A state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent. |
| Tension is unpleasant, and we are motivated to reduce it by (Cognitive dissonance theory; Festinger) | Changing one or both cognitions so that they are consistent Adding additional cognitions to bridge the gap between original ones Changing the preexisting attitude to be consistent with the behavior |
| When is dissonance irrational? | When it prevents us from learning important facts or finding real solutions to problems |
| When is dissonance reduction rational? | When we can maintain a positive self-image that depicts us as good, smart, or worthwhile But ego defense behaviors can lead to problems |
| Racial segregation study | Some participants favored segregation, some did not. Read arguments on both sides (rational and irrational) People tended to remember the rational ones on their side and the flawed irrational ones on the opposing side. |
| Capital punishment study (Lord, Ross, & Lepper) | We will distort information to fit our preconceived beliefs Some participants favored capital punishment, some did not people on both sides of the issue were more steadfast in arguing their original position after reading the papers |
| After we make a decision, we experience dissonance | Common way to reduce focus on the positive aspects of our choice and the negative aspects of the ones we did not choose Seek advertising information that is reassuring (Ehrlich) |
| Appliance study (Brehm) | Participants rated appliances and then were given the choice of two Participants were later asked to rate the items once again Ratings increased for the selected appliance and decreased for the appliance not chosen |
| Computer dating study (Johnson & Rusbult) | People were shown pictures and rated their attractiveness and how much they would enjoy a date with them The more committed the participants were to a current relationship, the less attractive they rated the women in the pictures |
| Another attractiveness rating study (Simpson) | Compared people in committed relationships |
| Is Dissonance Reduction Conscious? | People are unaware of how successful they will reduce dissonance Because the process is unconscious, we do not realize that I will protect us from pain in the future |
| Is Dissonance Universal? | Most research has been done in North America, but the effects have been shown to exist in every part if the world where research has been done Eddie Harmon-Jones et al. |
| The Importance of Irrevocability | Once a decision is final, we experience dissonance and are motivated to reduce it, but there is a catch |
| Lowballing (Ciadldini) | Dissonance is experienced if the person considers walking away. Dissonance can be reduced by the person telling oneself that it’s not that much more money. |
| Are you more ethical than a sixth grader? (Mills) | Sixth graders were put in situation where they could not win without cheating Ask them to indicate their views on cheating Some cheated, but some did not cheat When asked later their view on cheating, those who cheated had softened their stance; those |
| What is the impact of a series of small self-justification(The foot-in-the-door technique (Freedom and Fraser) | Those asked to sign a petition on “drive safety” a week earlier were more likely than controls (17% vs. 55%) to agree they have a huge ugly sign on their front lawn saying “Drive Carefully” |
| What is the relationship between external and internal justification? | If an individual states a belief (or behaves in a way) that is difficult to justify externally, that person will attempt to justify it internally by making his or her attitudes more consistent with the statement (or behavior) |
| The $1-$20 study (Festinger & Carlsmith) | tudent performed a boring task for an hour Asked to help the experimenter, who was running late to lie to another student waiting to do the experiment (say it was interesting) They all lied and were offered $1 (low external) or $20 (high external) When |
| If a person works hard to attain a goal, | That goal will be more attractive to the individual than it will be to someone who achieves the same goal with little or no effort “The psychology of sex” study (Aronson & Mills) |
| “A shocking result” study (Gerard & Mathewson) | Conceptually similar to the Aronson and Mills study Found that people given painful shocks to become members of the group liked the group better than people who received mild shocks or no shock |
| Living with the Rationalizer Within | People are capable of rational, adaptive behavior as well as dissonance-reducing behavior |
| Arsonson’s suggestions: | Understand my own defensiveness and dissonance-reducing tendencies Realize that performing stupid or immoral actions does not necessarily mean I am an irrevocably stupid or immoral person |
| Conformity | A change in a person’s behavior or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or a group of people. |
| Nonconformity | Discrete voiced opposition to group Rejected more if close to the deadline of a decision rather than earlier in the discussion |
| “Johnny Ricco” deviance study | Group of nine students (three confederates)- met to discuss the case history and decide the fate of a teenager who had been arrested for breaking the law There was one deviant in the mock trial and stuck with it The group was then asked about their fell |
| “Groupthink” | A kind of thinking in which maintaining group agreement overrides a careful consideration of the facts in a realistic manner |
| Chameleon effect | People often mirror one another’s nonverbal behaviors and mannerisms |
| Mirror neurons | Highly specialized brain cells that are activated both when we perform an action and when we witness another person performing the same action |
| Social learning: process of learning by observing | Toddlers will copy the behaviors of their peers, even if it means ignoring prior learning and being a reward (chocolate) |
| Muzafer Sherif | Used a visual illusion, the autokinetic effect ( you are in a dark room and you stare at a fixed point of light from a distance after a while the light will appear to move), to study how perceptions are socially influenced. |
| Solomon and Asch | Approximately three-quarters of the participants conformed at least once by responding incorrectly. Over the entire spectrum of judgment |
| Classic conformity experiments | Asch’s experiments have been replicated several times, results were identical to Asch’s original experiment |
| Burns fMRI study | Replicated the line task Greater activity in the amygdala for those who resisted Region of the brain associated with pain and discomfort- going against the group induces neural signals of physical pain ( just like social rejection) |
| Pressure for consensus (mind guards) | (one or two people typically step forward as the enforcers for the group) center information that might encourage dissenting opinions, and encourage conformity. |
| Motives for conformity (belonging versus getting information) | Physical reality versus “social reality” Need to belong may have a genetic basis Two reasons we might conform to others To secure our place in the group Check the accuracy of our initial impression We check social reality when physical reality is unc |
| Prestige and prevalence of models | When we are unclear about what is going on in a situation, we are particularly likely to condor to people whose behavior provides the most reliable information |
| Gladwell’s “the tipping point” | The right people in the right places talking about the right thing |
| Unanimity | Greatest pressure applied when the majority is unanimous A majority of 3 has about as much impact as 16. One dissenter (with correct answer) increase the likelihood that participants would also dissent |
| Commitment | Public commitments reduce likelihood of later conformity |
| Accountability | Conformity increases when we have to justify our decisions Qualification accuracy goal Half of the participants were given accuracy goals, while the other half were given cooperation goals Half were told they would need to justify decision, afterward, |
| Self-esteem | Low self-esteem are more likely to conform Low task-specific self-esteem more likely to conform |
| Feelings of acceptance by the group | Most likely to dissent if they feel secure Those who felt moderately accepted were more likely to conform Those who were led to feel moderately accepted were now more likely to conform to the norms set by the others than were those who were led to feel |
| Age | Conformity pressure are most intense through young people between the age of 10 and 25 |
| A group is more effective at including conformity if | It consists of perceived experts Its members are of high social status Its members are alike in a significant way, such as age, occupation, political ideology, race or ethnicity |
| Reference groups: groups that we belong to and identify with | Reflect and shape our identities and behaviors |
| Social Norms | People form their ideas about what is socially appropriate behavior in a given setting or within a community by observing what other people are doing |
| Descriptive norms | reflects our knowledge about what most people do in a given situation |
| Injunctive norms | specify what people should do, often through explicit directives |
| Turn on the water when soaping up | Models followed suggestion (wither one or two models in shower) No model (6%), one model (49%), two models (67%) conformity |
| Littering | Placed paper flyers under windshield wipers on cars in a parking lot Model crossed path of participant and picked up litter No model (37% threw to ground), model (6% threw to ground) |
| Theft | Model clean area around a mailbox or litter and graffiti on box Letter hanging out with exposed $5 Clean area (13% stole the money), dirty area (27% stole the letter) |
| “Lady in Distress” experiment | Experiment fell off chair in nearby room and cried in pain Participants who were alone helped 70% of the time People who were with two others strangers- 20% of the time Bystander effect presence of bystander inhibits action |
| Diffusion of responsibility | the awareness of other witness diffuses the responsibility felt by any one person |
| Pluralistic ignorance | The collective in a false norm that is created by the ambiguous behavior of others Most people conform to the display rules Acting out an emotion we do not really feel because we believe it is socially appropriate is called emotion work |
| Levels of Conformity | Compliance Identification Internalization |
| Compliance | Behavior motivated by the desire to seek a reward or avoid a punishment Behavior lasts only as long as the reward or punishment is available |
| Identification: | Behavior motivated by desire to be like another person or group Adopt positions of people and groups we like Reject or adopt contrary positions of people groups we dislike |
| Internalization | A value of belief that is integrated into our own personal value system; motivated by a desire to be right; most long-lasting type of social influence Does not change when agent of rewarding/punishment not present |
| Obedience as a form of Compliance (Milgrim's study of Obedience) | Task was to “teach” another subject (confederate) to learn a list of word pairs by administering shocks for each error Confederate acted increasingly upset as shock intensely increased 67% continued to the end and gave the most intense shock |
| Implications (ways to reduce compliance) | Reduce the prestiges of the location: 48% compliance Allow teacher to see the learner: 40% Teacher focused learner’s arm onto shock plate: 30% Remove the authority figure from situation: <24% Reduce the legitimacy of the authority figures: 20% |
| Persuasion | when communication from one person changes the opinions, attitudes, or behavior of another person |
| Opinion | what a person believes to be true |
| Attitude | an opinion that includes an emotional and an evaluative component |
| Susceptibility to commercials | 90% of preschoolers asked their mothers for toy/food seen on TV. |
| Skepticism of truth in commercials grow quickly | 12% believed commercials always were truthful 4% of 10th grader |
| Propaganda | the systematic propagation of given doctrine |
| Education | the act of imparting knowledge or skill |
| The “filter bubble" | the personalized universe information that makes it into our social media feeds and therefore gets our attention |
| Peripheral routes | less judicious consideration of the message, affected by simple messages; often irrelevant cues that suggest rightness, wrongness, or attractiveness. |
| Central routes | a more deliberate process that involves weighting arguments and considering relevant facts and figures and thinking about issues in a systematic fashion |
| Credibility | We believe those we consider to be both experts and trustworthy |
| Increasing Trustworthiness | Contradicting self-interest Unintentional persuasion |
| Unintentional persuasion | Overheard comments not intended for person are more persuasive because they are believed not to be a persuasive attempt |
| Contradicting self-interest | Joe “the shoulder” study Joe is a criminal was as effective as a politician persuading participants about stricter courts and prison sentences Such an argument does not help a criminal |
| Reactance | We attempt to restore our sense of freedom if we encounter a blatant or coercive persuasive attempt |
| The inoculation effect | If a weak argument is presented against your stated position and you defeat it, the process teaches you how to attack stronger arguments against your position in the future |
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Jboone02
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