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PsychololgyPaper3AQA
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Farrington and Dowds (1985) | Compared official stats between Nottingham and other counties as Nottingham had a higher than average crime rate. It turns out police in Nottingham were reporting all crimes, such as petty theft and vandalism this wasn’t happening in other counties. |
| Holmes (1989) | Only 88 out of 192 cases where offender profiling was used resulted in an arrest (46%) And even then, it was the reason for arrest in 17% of the 88 cases |
| Copson | Only 14% of senior officers said that offender profiling was useful and worthwhile in solving cases. |
| Rachel Nickell case 1992) | A profile was broadcast on the radio and 4 callers identified Colin Stagg. A sting was organised to try to catch him and he was arrested. It was thrown out in court due to the evidence. The real killer (Robert Napper) admitted it in 2008 |
| Jacobs et al (1965) | Found that there were a higher proportion of prisoners with an extra Y chromosome than the wider population. ((_theorist’s name_) syndrome). He put this down to excess testosterone production, |
| Andrews and Bonta (2006) | examined concordance rates between bio parents and adopted kids. Criminality may not be inherently inherited but that emotional instability or mental illness could be inherited. This would make life harder for people so they may turn to crime. |
| Yochelson and Samenow (1976) | Longitudinal study onto the thinking patterns of criminals. Found there to be 3 common criminal thinking patterns- Criminal thinking patterns- fear Automatic thinking errors-, impulsiveness, no empathy Crime related thinking errors- fantasising |
| Gibbs (1995) | 4 criminal cognitive distortions- Minimization- making crimes etc seem less worse Self centred- only thinking about themselves Blame- society, others etc for criminal activity Hostile attribution bias |
| What are the levels of reasoning suggested by Kohlberg | 1- Preconventional (that shit’s for fascists and maybe teenagers (kids)) 2- conventional (most adults fall here) 3- postconventional (Jeremy mf Betham and Fletcher) |
| What did Kohlberg mean by preconventional reasoning | This is based on operant conditioning. What is bad is what is punished, and what is truly good serves one’s own purposes, and no further reasoning |
| What did Kohlberg mean by conventional reasoning | What is good is what will give you a good reputation and what follows society’s norms and values |
| What did Kohlberg mean by postconventional reasoning | What is good is what serves to bring the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. And universal laws like life is intrinsically worth more than money |
| Blackburn (1993) | Psychodynamic approach- criminal activity is the result of a malfunctioning superego. Weak superego Deviant superego Strong superego |
| Define the deviant superego | Blackburn (1993)- Superego just won’t stop the id, This occurs when the same sex parent was deviant so these are the norms and values the kid internalised, |
| Define the strong superego | Blackburn (1993)- This is where the superego wants to be punished because everything feels wrong. These individuals may actually commit crimes to get the satisfaction of punishment, |
| Englander (2007) | Linked criminal activity to Freud’s 3 defence mechanisms- Displacement- Taking out bad feelings on others- explains violent crime Repression Denial triggering events may release this anger in the form of criminality |
| Bowlby (1944) | 44 thieves experiment. People lacking in maternal love could develop into affectionless psychopaths and engage on a life of crime. |
| Sutherland (1939) | (differential association theory If a person has more frequent, intense and longer criminal associations than non criminal, they will be influenced by the norms and values of criminality. Also linked to how early in life, the earlier the more effect. |
| Farrington et al (2006) | found that key risk factors in criminality were family criminality, poverty, poor parenting, low education and risk taking. This correlates pretty nicely with Sutherland’s differential association theory |
| Short (1995) | There was a correlation between delinquency and hanging out with delinquents. Eg subcultures |
| What are the purposes of custodial sentencing | Retribution Incapacitation Rehabilitation Deterrence/ denunciation |
| What are the types of deterrence | Specific- physically preventing the individual doing crimes General- influencing the general public’s actions to avoid another’s fate. |
| Dooley (1990) | Prisoners are more vulnerable to depression and suicide Those who had committed violent and sexual crimes were most at risk To improve, the theorist suggested there needed to be better communication between staff and prisoners. |
| Zimbardo (1973) | His Stanford Prison Experiment had to be cut short because of the serious negative effects on the group acting as prisoners |
| What factors influence recidivism? | How long they were in prison Supervision now they’re out Education Seriousness of crime Ethnicity Prison experience |
| Recidivism rate after one year, in the UK in 2019 | 26% Gillis (1998) |
| What is the suicide rate in prison vs wider population | 9x higher |
| Shirley (2019) | Offenders who have engaged with college education programs are 43% less likely to reoffend following release/ Prisons who offer such programs have fewer incidents of violence |
| Hobbs and Holt (1976) | Introduced token economy programs with groups of young offenders across 3 behavioural units and a control group. Significant difference in positive behaviour in token economy |
| Basset and Blanchard (1977) | All the positive effects of token economies are lost if the system is inconsistently applied. This is effected by low staff training or high staff turnover |
| Blackburn (1993) | Token economies have limited rehabilitative value as when the tokens are removed, the old behaviours return. Although they may make prisons nicer places as while the economies are running, there do tend to be fewer violence incidents. |
| Novaco (1997) | cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal an=that leads to most aggressive acts Therefore, they suggest using anger management therapy in 8 weeks of 2hr sessions |
| What are the three stages of anger management therapy | (Novaco) Cognitive preparation- consider and recognise patterns of feelings and understanding these are irrational Skills Acquisition- learning techniques, eg breathing, being assertive and +tive self-talk. Application practice- role play |
| Howells (2005) | Australian prisoners Programmes had limited effect compared to the control group that had no training. However they did have a significant effect on s few- intense levels of anger/ those who were ‘treatment ready’ and motivated. |
| Ireland (2000) | For 92% of ppts of anger managment therapy, there was a marked improvement in behaviour However, 8% got worse |
| What are the criteria of restorative justice | It must be a crime with a victim The victim must volunteer and tje prisoner must be ready Victim and offender must have communication Offender must make reparations |
| Smith report (2007) | Restorative justice appears to help both victim and offender And the victim is likely to want revenge/ have PTSD However, not many people know it exists so its not that useful |
| Braithwaite (2004) | Justice should act as a healing process not retribution but rehabilitation to heal the harm caused (to both criminal and vic) |
| Define intersexual selection | where members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex for reproduction. |
| Define Intrasexual selection | members of the same sex competing for access to members of the opposite sex. |
| What bird best explains the toss up between sexual selection and natural selection? | Peacock |
| Define anisogamy | The differences between gametes between sexes. Eg male- small, low energy, fast moving Female- slow, high energy, It forms the basis of human sexual selection |
| Buss (1989) | Surveyed over 10,000 people from 33 countries Found that women placed higher value on resource characteristics eg money Men favoured reproductive capacity eg looks etc. |
| Which sexual selection strategy do females prefer? | intersexual Eg must mate with best as gametes are high energy |
| Which sexual selection strategy do males prefer? | intrasexual Can mate with as many as possible as gametes are low energy |
| Trivers (1972) | Women make a much larger investment in kids than men *have* to. Eg pregnancy and childcare. Therefore it is more important for the woman to find the perfect partner |
| Define dimorphism | difference in looks between males and females Generally caused by intrasexual selection |
| Bereczkei et al. (1997) | The advent of the contraceptive pill may mean that women no longer feel the need to be so picky over who they f*ck However this may not apply to actually having kids |
| Chang (2011) | concluded that, after studying sexual selection in China, some selection was changing. Any theory that does not inc both cultural and evolutionary influences is incomplete |
| Clark and Hatfield (1989) | Study in USA university.What asked to have sex that night with a stranger, 75% of men agreed 0% of women agreed Suggests that women are still careful to select partners However it may just be revealing that there are cultural restrictions on women |
| Waynforth and Dunbar (1995) | Looked at lonely hearts ads in papers Women tended to advertise physical characteristics Men tended to advertise resources like wealth and ambition This appears to fit with sexual selection theory |
| Define self-disclosure | refers to the details people reveal about themselves to a partner. As breadth and depth increase, romantic partners become more committed to each other. |
| Altman and Taylor (1973) | Social penetration theory- Trust between two partners is slowly developed through reciprocal disclosure of personal details. |
| Reis and Shaver (1988) | If self disclosure is not reciprocal then it will grow uncomfortable and there will be a lack of trust. The relationship will begin to break down |
| Sprecher and Hendrick (2004) | Studies heterosexual couples and found a strong correlation between satisfaction and self-disclosure. Those who felt it was reciprocal were the most satisfied. |
| Laurenceau (2005) | Found the perception of reciprocal self-disclosure were the most satisfied and correlated with successful long term marriages etc |
| Haas and Stafford (1998) | Found that 57% of homosexual men and women said that open and honest self-disclosure was the ,ain way they maintained and deepened relationships. Thus the theory is generalizable to all people |
| Tang (2013) | Self disclosure theory is individualistic. Compared self disclosure in USA and China USA disclosed more Yet both cultures would argue themselves equally satisfying relationship-wise |
| Whitty and Joinson (2009) | Self disclosure is higher on computer mediated communication CMC compared to face to face communication. This is partly helped by the anonymity of being online. |
| Shackelford and Larsen (1997) | Found that people with symmetrical and “baby” faces were rated as more attractive. This is proposed to be due to the “honest signalling” of genetic factors. Symmetrical-ness and youth may indicate genetic fitness and youth may trigger protective factors |
| Palmer and Peterson (2011) | The Halo Effect Physically attractive people are consistently rated as more competent and knowledgeable. |
| Walster and Walster (1969) | The Matching Hypothesis We look for partners who are similar to ourselves in terms of physicality (also in intelligence and personality etc) This is instead of choosing the most attractive. |
| Feingold (1988) | There is a correlation between ratings of attractiveness between couples. Supports the matching hypothesis |
| Taylor (2011) | Link to the matching hypothesis- When people are online they go after partners who are more attractive than themselves |
| Cunningham (1995) | Certain female features such as large eyes and small nose etc were consistently rated as most attractive Asian, white and Hispanic men, Thus halo theory is culturally relevant |
| Wheeler and Kim (1997) | Both Korean and US students rated physical attractive people as kinder, trustworthy and mature than others. |
| Towhey (1979) | PPts who scored high on the MACHO quiz (measures sexist viewpoints) saw attractiveness as more important in relationships. |
| Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) | Filter Theory- Relationships are defined by who is available to us. Social demography - people available to date. Similarity of attitudes- promoted disclosure etc Complementary- eg meeting each other’s needs by being different |
| Levinger (1974) | many later studies have failed to replicate Kerckhoff and Davis’ (1962) findings that supported filter theory. However this theorist put this lack of replicability down to massive social change making filter theory temporally invalid. |
| Davis and Rusbult (2001) and also Anderson et al (2003) | Link to filter theory. Couples may become more similar in their emotional responses and attitudes over time. This would suggest that similarity is an effect of initial attraction rather than the cause. |
| Thibault and Kelly (1959) | Social exchange theory (SET) Partners try to minimise losses and raise gains when it comes to relationships. Satisfaction = profit These costs and rewards are subjective You may move on if there are more profitable relationships available. |
| According to Thibault and Kelly (1959) what are the stages of relationship development | Sampling- explore the rewards of the social exchange Bargaining- beginning of relationship, exchange of rewards/costs begins Commitment- rewards and costs become predictable Institutionalisation-settled in relationship, rewards and costs established |
| Define Comparison level (CL) | Thibault and Kelly (1959) The amount of reward you feel you deserve. Linked to social norms, past experiences, and self esteem. A high CL is worth pursuing |
| Define Comparison with Alternatives (CLalt) | Thibault and Kelly (1959) Assessing rewards and costs of current relationships vs other possible relationships |
| Clark and Mills (2011) | Criticise SET as it assumes that economic principles can apply romantically. Romantic relationships are communally based and partners do not keep score because this would destroy the test that underlies close emotional bonds. |
| Argyle (1987) | Criticises SET- Couples only start begin aware of SET AFTER the relationship has begun to break down. |
| Miller (1997) | Support for SET People who rated themselves in a highly committed romantic relationship were less likely to look at pictures of attractive alternatives, inc downright ignoring them. Although this cannot establish causation for SET |
| Walster (1978) | Equity theory- a response to criticisms of SET. It is the idea that fairness is more important in relationships than profit. it this the profit level that is vital As relationships progress couples may become more aware of the inequality |
| Define overbenefiting in equity theory | Walster (1978)- Getting larger profit than partner. May induce feelings of guilt, discomfort and shame. |
| Define underbenefiting in equity theory | Walster (1978)- Getting smaller profit than partner. May induce feelings of resentment, hostility and humiliation. Most likely to feel dissatisfied |
| Hatfield (1979) | Interviewed over 2,000 newly married couples on how long they felt their relationship would last and how they sat equity-wise- Equity- thought relationships would last Under Benefiting- more likely to cheat Over Benefiting- less confident about lasting |
| Utne (1984) | Couples that rated themselves as more equitable also claimed to be more satisfied |
| Aumer-Ryan et al (2007) | Equity theory does not apply across cultures- Individualist (USA)- satisfaction = equitability Collectivist (Jamaica)- Satisfaction= over benefiting (true of both men and women) |
| Huseman (1987) | Some people are less concerned about equity than the “norm”. Benevolents- prepared to under benefit Entitleds- those who believe they deserve to over benefit |
| Berg and McQuinn (1986) | Equity theory did not differentiate between long lasting relationships and others. Self disclosure was more important. |
| Rusbult (2011) | Investment Model- Satisfaction (CL) Comparison with alternatives (CLalt) Investment size All add up to commitment, high commitment results in relationship maintenance mechanisms. |
| Define intrinsic investments | Rusbult (2011)- Inside relationships Tangible- money and possessions Intangible- self disclosure, emotions, energy |
| Define extrinsic investments | Rusbult (2011)- Do not feature in relationships but are closely associated with it- Tangible- kids, house, car, friends Intangible- memories |
| Define relationship maintenance mechanisms | Rusbult (2011)- These are cognitive functions that keep relationships going such as Positive illusions Promotion of relationship Decision to keep relationship going Ridiculing of alternatives |
| Le and Agnew (2003) | Meta analysis of 52 studies 1970-1999 11,000 ppts across 52 countries, gay and straight couples, men and women, Supports Rusbult’s model perfectly CL, CLalt and investment = commitment= stability and length of relationship |
| Rusbult and Martz (1995) | Looked at women who were victims of intimate partner violence (IPV)- Women who would return to abusive partners (suggesting large commitment) were often those who had a large investment and felt they had few attractive alternatives. |
| Goodfriend and Agnew (2008) | The investment model is great but it forgets that future plans are probably the best intangible investment- eg growing old together etc. |
| Duck (2007) | Model of relationship breakdown in 4 phases- Intra-psychic Dyadic Social Grave Dressing It begins as one partner realises they are dissatisfied It is a useful theory as it provides tools for relationship maintenance |
| Define the Intra-psychic stage | Duck (2007)- Cognitive process occurring within one individual where they consider mostly private thoughts over the other partner’s shortcomings and weighing this up with alternatives and plans for the future |
| Define the Dyadic stage | Duck (2007)- Couples will now discuss the relationship in a series of confrontations This is where the greatest self disclosure will occur and couples will move forward deciding to change things or breakup, |
| Define the social stage | Duck (2007)- Wider processes occur within social networks Friends start taking sides - this is the point of no return as now the breakup is fueled by social norms |
| Define the Grave Dressing stage | Duck (2007)- The Aftermath- burying the relationship whilst retaining reputation. Gossip is crucial in this stage, part of the process of rewriting memories to make you look like the good guy |
| Akert (1992) | Partners who instigated breakup were much less affected emotionally by it. Also women were more likely to want to remain friends afterwards. |
| Rollie and Duck (2016) | Adapted the original phase model to have a 5th stage- resurrection!! Ex partners apply their experiences to future relationships Also the phase model is not linear and can go backwards at any time! |
| Moghaddam (1993) | The phase model is not culturally applicable Individualist- relationships are voluntary and can be left easily Collectivist- less easy and involves wider family. |
| Sproull and Kiesler (1986) | Reduced Cue theory cmc relationships will be less good than ftf relationships Because cmc relationships have reduced cues eg expression and tone of voice, disinhibition- people feel freer to be aggressive and less likely to tell the truth |
| Walther (1996, 2011) | Part the Hyperpersonal model There will be more personal and greater self disclosure so it happens earlier and deeper. Selective self presentation- people have greater control over what they send people so will be overly truthful or intensely untruthful |
| Bargh et al (2002) | Part the Hyperpersonal model When you know people don’t know know you are feel less accountable to their actions You may be more ready to disclose to a stranger than an intimate partner |
| McKenna and Bargh (1999) on beginnings in relationship | Part the Hyperpersonal model There are fewer gates in the way for CMC relationships so they are more likely to begin, Eg people with anxiety etc can be less masked |
| Cooper and Sportolari (1997) | Part the Hyperpersonal model CMC relationships do not last as long as the excitement level of the interaction does not match the level of trust The boom and bust of CMC relationships |
| Walther and Tidwell (1995) | people online use other cues to replace the ones that would be lacking eg capitalization, punctuation, emojis |
| McKenna and Bargh (2000) study onto CMC | Looked at CMC of shy/lonely/ anxious people Online these people could better express themselves than FtF Began CMC- 71% survived at least two years Began FtF- 49% |
| Walther (2011) diversity of relationships | all relationships are multimodal and will use both FtF communication and CMC |
| McCutcheon (2002) | developed the celebrity attitude scale CAS Absorption Addiction model People get obsessed with celebs to make up for deficiencies in their own lives As they get more involved with the celeb, like any addiction, they process further down the celeb scale |
| Matby (2006) theory | Used CAS to identify 3 levels of parasocial relationships Entertainment-social= least intense, Intense-personal= frequent obsessive thoughts Borderline-Pathological= intense, uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours, illegal activity probable |
| Ainsworth (1979) | People with bad attachment types are more likely to be in unhealthy relationships. Insecure resistant- intense parasocial relationships as unable to get needs fulfilled in life. Insecure avoidant- will avoid any type of relationship |
| Roberts (2007) | Tested Ainsworth’s assumptions of attachment and parasocial relationships Insecure resistant- more likely Insecure-avoidant- none secure=intimate FtF relationship McCutcheon- attachment type had no effect on parasocial relationships |
| Matby (2005) study | Study of boys and girls aged 14-16 Girls who reported intense-personal parasocial relationships with adult women whose body shape they admired had a poorer body image. |
| Schmid and Klimmt (2011) | Using and online questionnaire they found that parasocial relationships were not culturally specific Eg parasocial relations with Harry Potter appeared the same in Germany (individ) and mexico (collect) |
| What percentage of the general population does SZ effect? | 1% |
| How does the DSM-5 diagnose SZ? | One +ve symptom and then 1 negative symptom. It also does not recognise variation of SZ |
| How does the ICD-10 diagnose SZ? | Requires at least 2 positive symptoms and recognises variations such as paranoid sz or catatonic sz |
| Define paranoid sz | powerful delusions and hallucinations, but few other symptoms |
| Define Catatonic sz | disturbance in movement eg immobile or overactive |
| Define Hebephrenic sz | involves mostly negative symptoms |
| Who publishes the ICD-10? | The World Health Org |
| Who publishes the DSM-5? | American Psychiatric Association |
| Describe positive symptoms of sz? | these are symptoms that are not present in non-sz individuals and may inc hallucinations and delusions |
| Define hallucinations | Unusual sensory experiences, may be auditory or visual and may not at all be related to the environment |
| Define delusions | irrational beliefs |
| What are the types of delusions? | Delusion of control- eg having superpowers Nihilistic- believe the end is ni Grandiose- feeling very important Persecutory- feeling people eg the govt are out to get them |
| Define negative symptoms of sz | loss of usual experiences or abilities, and may inc avolition or speech disorganisation |
| Define avolition | difficulty beginning or continuing goal directed activity |
| Andrean (1982) | 3 signs of avolition Poor hygiene, lack of motivation, lack of persistance |
| Define speech disorganisation | speech is incoherent and topics etc may change mid sentence. There may also be a reduction in speech and delay in responses in conversation (speech poverty) |
| How to the classification types differ in terms of speech disorganisation | ICD-10 only looks at speech poverty, but the DSM-5 looks at speech disorganisation and sees it as a positive symptom |
| Cheniux (2009) | low inter-rater reliability between classification types- Two psychiatrists independently assessed the same 100 patients but with each with a different classification type. ICD- 68 diagnosis DSM- 39 |
| Why may sz diagnosis be getting more reliable? | However things may be changing because of the development of the objective criteria - OPCRIT - operationalised checklist of symptoms that decides diagnosis |
| Buckley (2009) | about 50% of people with sz diagnosis were also diagnosed with depression. We may be misdiagnosing people because severe depression does present similarly to sz. |
| What is the issue with current symptoms of sz? | They overlap with bipolar so may be confused eg delusions and avolition- they may actually be the same disorder |
| Rosenhan (1973) | sane in insane places study- Pseudopatients all got admitted with a sz diagnosis after expressing incorrect symptoms. All recorded poor conditions of the hospitals- with very limited time with drs and the fact that the longest stay inside was 52 days. |
| Fischer and Buchanan (2017) | Since the 1980s, men have been diagnosed with sz more than women in a ratio of 1 to 4 (although women may have a genetic disposition against it) |
| Cotton (2001) | Women are under diagnosed with sz because they may have better support groups so women can function better. However this may lead to women not receiving the treatment they need. |
| Escobar (2012) | There is an overdiagnosis of black British people This may be because the psychiatric profession is dominated by white people who over interpret symptoms in black people and not trust their self diagnosis |
| Pinto (2017) | meta analysis of databases from 1950 - 2013- Statistically significant elevated incidence rates for all mental illnesses inc sz and bipolar for Black Caribbean people in the UK Although this study does not identify a cause |
| Copeland (1971) | Gave US and UK psychiatrists the same description of a patient US- 69% diagnoses with sz UK- 2% diagnosed with sz |
| Pinto and Jones (2008) | people with African-Caribbean origin are 9x more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia |
| Define expressed emotion (ee) | A high level of (negative) emotion expressed towards a person with sz by carers May inc verbal hostility or criticism and emotional overinvolvement It is a serious source of stress |
| Vaughn and Leff (1967) | EE significantly correlates with relapse of ee after hospital discharge |
| Frieda Fromm-Reichmann (1948) | Proposed the schizophrenogenic mother- A cold, controlling home environment filled with tension and secrecy Caused paranoid delusions and later sz |
| Bateson (1972) | Developed the theory of the sz mother and proposed double-bind theory- As kids, they receive mixed messages over behaviour unable to comment on the unfairness/seek clarification. The punishment for wrongdoing is often no love just a risk factor |
| Read (2005) on attachment | adults with sz are disproportionately likely to be insecurely attached esp type C or D |
| Read (2004) on abuse | meta analysis of 46 studies into child abuse and sz- 69% of women had a history of physical/sexual abuse 59% of men Link to neurodevelopmental model as the early trauma may alter the developing brain so people are more vulnerable to stress |
| Tenari (2004) | Kids with sz biological parents are at a greater risk of developing the disorder compared with the gp 7% with sz parents vs 1.5% without sz parents Although the kids who developed sz also tended to have adoptive families who were high on EE |
| Firth (1992) | Identified 2 types of dysfunctional thinking which could underlie some sz symptoms- Meta representation Central control However these explanations do not really show why sz is caused but how it manifests |
| Define Firth’s metarepresentation | It is the cognitive ability to reflect on your own thoughts and behaviours. This would explain hallucinations as disruption of this would prevent ppts from recognising their own thoughts. |
| Define Firth’s central control theory | an inability to control or suppress automatic thoughts. This would explain speech and thought disorganisation as thoughts cannot be put down. Thus each new word triggers new routes of thinking and none of them can be stopped. |
| Stirling (2006) | compared performance in a range of cognitive tasks between sz and nonsz people. As predicted by Frith’s central control theory, people with sz took 2x longer to complete the stroop test vs controls. Although there was a lot of variation in sz results |
| Neufeld (1978) | Compared paranoid and nonparanoid sz in cognitive task- Concluded that cognitive deficits in sz are in working and short term memory. |
| Define agonist | a drug which increases the action of a neurotransmitter e.g. SSRis increases serotonin. |
| Define antagonist | A drug which blocks or reduces the action of a neurotransmitter eg antipsychotics reduce dopamine. |
| What are typical antipsychotics | drugs to treat sz that have been in circulation since the 1970s. They fit with the dopamine hypothesis which suggests sz is caused by too much dopamine in the brain |
| Give an example of typical antipsychotic drug | chlorpromazine |
| What are atypical antipsychotic drugs | designed to treat sz, around since the 1970s |
| Give an example of atypical antipsychotic drug | Clozapine Risperidone |
| Describe Clozapine | Briefly withdrawn in the 1970s due to the deaths from a blood condition called agranulocytosis, But it was rebranded as a successful treatment for those who had been resistant to other drugs. also acts on serotonin and glutamate receptors |
| Describe Risperidone | developed in the 1990s. Taken at a small dosage and increased to a max of 12 mg (smol) There are some side effects but not many It is thought to bind dopamine and serotonin receptors much more strongly than other drugs. |
| Thornley (2003) | meta analysis of studies on the effects of chlorpromazine vs controls. Data from 13 trials and 1121 ppts showed at chlorpromazine was associated with better overall functioning and reduced symptoms severity vs placebo |
| Meltzer (2012) | Clozaoine is more effective than typical drugs It was effective in 30-50% of cases where typical antipsychotics had failed |
| Healy (2012) | Serious flaws in evidence for the effectiveness of drugs for sz. Most studies are short term and many had data published multiple times thus exaggerating their finding Some only appear successful because of their sedative effect. |
| Define Tardive Dyskinesia | involuntary muscle movements caused by dopamine sensitivity caused by long term use of typical antipsychotics |
| Define Neuroleptic malignant syndrome | high temperature, delirium, coma and sometimes death. Developed in 0.1 and 2% of users of typical antipsychotics although this has been reduced with lower does |
| How does the Diathesis stress model apply to sz | There is a biological predisposition to sz but the manifestation of the disorder is caused by stressors such as EE |
| Gottesman (1991) | Large scale family study into sz, sz increases in line with genetic similarity- Parents - 6% Siblings- 9% Dizygotic twins- 17% Monozygotic twins- 48% |
| What evidence exists supporting the Dopamine hypothesis? | When “normal” people are given Amphetamines (which increase dopamine levels in the brain) they display symptoms similar to sz Drugs such as chlorpromazine, which reduce dopamine appear to alleviate sz symptoms |
| Define hyperdopaminergic | brain produces or picks up too much dopamine |
| How does the revised dopamine hypothesis explain sz | (Davis (1991)) Some parts of the brain will have too much dopamine However this will also lead to other parts of the brain having too little dopamine, which explains negative symptoms. |
| Patel (2010) | Brain scans of sz vs normal individuals has found that sz have lowered levels of dopamine in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |
| Catherine Tenn (2003) | Gave amphetamines to rats and induced sz -like symptoms and was able to relive this with drugs that reduce dopamine However other drugs did not have this effect so it may be that amphetamine psychosis just resembles sz (Garson) |
| McCutcheon (2020) | Postmortem and live scanning of brains have consistently found raised levels of Glutamate in several brain regions of those with sz. Several of the candidate genes associated with sz are also linked to glutamate production and processing. |
| How long is CBT treatment for sz? | 5 to 20 one hour sessions (longer than other things) |
| What cognitive treatments exist for sz? | Family therapy CBT Token economies |
| Define psychoeducation | Part of CBT therapy for sz Involves learning about the disorder so you can better deal with symptoms This is good for patients with auditory hallucinations as they can understand where it is coming from and that it isn’t dangerous |
| Define normalisation | This is where psychiatrists teach patients that their symptoms are just extensions of normal things, e.g. auditory hallucinations are just extensions of typical internalised thought. Psychiatrists can also tackle the reality of delusions |
| Jauhar (2014) | Reviewed 34 studies of using CBT with sz and concluded that there was clear evidence for a small but significant effect on both positive and negative symptoms of sz |
| Tarrier | CBT therapy is beneficial especially for those undergoing a short episode. However it is often paired with drug therapies |
| What is the aim of family therapy for sz | to improve communication styles within families to reduce stressors on the sz individual |
| Pharaoh (2010) | Identified a range of strategies that families can use to improve functioning of a family with a sz member- Eg reduce negative emotions - linked to EE EG forms a therapeutic alliance - all family members are on board overall evidence for this is weak |
| What do NICE guidelines recommend for treatment of sz | CBT therapy and family therapy And also art therapy |
| Ayllon and Azrin (1963) | A classic token economy, Women in a sz ward would be rewarded with tokens for good works eg getting dressed etc and then these tokens could be redeemed for rewards eg Conc- The number of tasks completed increased significantly not a treatment |
| Glowaski (2016) | Identified 7 high quality studies into sz Concluded that token economies reduce negative symptoms and a decline in frequency of negative behaviours |
| Chiang (2019) | Token economies are not very ethical as they can make life harder for already seriously ill people and they give doctors too much power Art therapy may be a better alternative- It is high gain and low risk and NICE guidelines recommends it |
| Meehl (1962) | Developed the diathesis stress model to explain schizophrenia The idea was that the diathesis was entirely genetic (via a single schizogene) and stress throughout childhood was the stress part |
| Houston (2008) | Child hood sexual abuse emerged as a major influence on vulnerability While Cannabis use was a trigger |
| DeForti (2015) | Smoking high THC cannabis in adolescence can trigger sz |
| Ripke (2014) | 108 candidate genes for sz (Polygenetic) |
| Turkington (2006) | It is perfectly reasonable to assume that sz is genetic yet treat the psychological symptoms with CBT as they are psychological |
| Tarrier (2004) | Randomly allocated 315 ppts into the three conditions Drugs and CBT Drugs and counselling Just drugs- Ppts who did therapy showed fewer symptoms than the just drugs group However there was no difference in hospital readmission across all three groups |
| Define the treatment-causation fallacy | This is where we try to say what a condition is caused by based only on effective treatments. It is helpful but is still an assumption and therefore not really valid. It may also prevent new treatments being made. (paradigms) |
| Why may chlorpromazine not actually treat sz | It has a histamine effect eg is an effective sedative. It may not treat sz but will effectively calm patients down so they are easier to deal with |
| Wood and Suzuki (2016) | argue that restorative justice is not as survivor focussed as research suggests. Sometimes it can become distorted and turn into the vic being a teaching point for the offender. This is not effective |
| Define the weak superego | Can't stop the ID |
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