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Cognitive Psychology
Week 5
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Gestalt approach to problem solving | 1. People represent a problem in their mind 2. Solving a problem involves reorganization or restructuring of this representation. |
| Newell & Simon approach | Problem solving as a sequence of choices or steps, with each step creating an intermediate state. |
| States of Newell & Simon approach | Initial state: conditions at beginning of problem Goal state: solution Operators: actions that take problem from one state to another |
| Problem space | Initial state, goal state and all possibel intermediate states for a particular problem. |
| Insight problem | Seems impossible to solve, but ''aha'' moment |
| Non-insight problems | Solving gradually using memory, reasoning skills and routine set of strategies. |
| Representation | Way you translate elements of problem into different format. How? Symbols, diagrams, visual images. |
| Situated cognition approach | Using helpful information in our immediate environment to create spatial representations. Demonstrated by children selling things on the street. |
| Ecological validity | Study in which conditions are similar to natural setting in which results will be applied. |
| Embodied cognition approach | use our own body and motor actions in order to express thoughts and knowledge |
| Restructuring | Process of changing problem's representation |
| 4 stages of problem solving as a 4 stage process | 1: Problem generation (finding) 2: Problem formulation (definition, idea finding) 3. Problem solving (evaluation & selection, planning) 4. Solution implementation (selling idea, taking action) |
| Is group brainstorming effective? | No, generates less ideas than individual brainstorming. Is because: - Some people may dominate discussion - In a group can inhibit people from expressing their ideas - People likely pay attention to others in group instead of coming up with own ideas |
| Fixation in problem solving | People's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution |
| What influences your problem solving? | Your mental set & how a problem is stated. |
| Mental set | Preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is deteremined by a person's experience or what has worked in the past. |
| Functional fixedness | Focusing solely on familiar functions or uses of an object. Demonstrated by candle problem & two-string problem. |
| What helps in solving problems? | Mindfulness. |
| How is it illustrated that how a problem is stated can affect its difficulty? | Mutilated checker board problem. What helps is an analogy. |
| What facilitates creative thinking? | - Positive mood - Physical activity - Nature environment - Mental illness: latent inhibition & savant syndrome |
| Means-end analysis | Way of solving a problem by creating subgoals. |
| Analogy | Solution to a similar problem to guide solution of new problem |
| Analogical transfer | Transfer from one problem to another Target problem: problem trying to solve Source problem; analogous problem. Demonstrated by Duncker's radiation problem. |
| Process of analogical problem solving (3 steps) | 1. Noticing 2. Mapping correspondence 3. Applying the mapping |
| Surface features | Specific elements of problems. People often focus on this and it makes it harder to notice an analogy. |
| Structural features | Underlying principle that governs a solution. |
| Analogical encoding | Process by which two problems are compared and similarities are determined. |
| Analogical paradox | Difficulty applying analogies in lab research, but people routinely use analogies in daily life. |
| Differences in experts and novices in problem solving | 1. Experts possess more knowledge; they possess schemas organized according to underlying structural similarities. 2. Experts spend more time analyzing and understanding problems. |
| Disadvantages of being an expert | - Experts only do well in their field of study - May make them less open to new ways of looking at problems, aka less flexible. |
| Divergent thinking (creative problem solving) | Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of solution. |
| Heuristics in problem solving | general rule that is usually correct (better than algorithm) but does not guarantee solution. Example is hill-climb heuristic. |
| Hill-climb heuristic | Constantly choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal. |
| Algorithm | Method that will always produce a solution to a problem. Example is exhaustive search |
| Exhaustive search | Trying out all possible answers using a specified system |
| Cognitive Load Theory | Learning theory that focuses on hwo the brain processes new information. |
| Types of learning (3) | Schema construction: combining new single information elements into one larger element Eloboratino: adding new information elements to existing schemas Automation: through practice, schemata become more automated |
| 3 types of loads, which add up to Total Cognitive Load | Intrinsic load: complexity of learning task & prior knowledge Extraneous load: imposed by design or specific instruction. Ineffective for learning. Germane load: related to specific instruction. Effective for learning. |
| What does element interactivity in the total cognitive load model depend on? | - Nature of learning material - Expertise of learner |
| Element interactivity | Determined by estimating number of interacting elements in learning material |
| Interactive elements | Elements that must be processed simultaneously in working memory as they are logically related. |
| What are weak strategies used by novices? | Trial & error, means-end analysis |
| 3 cognitive load effects | 1. Goal-free effect 2. Example-based learning & worked example effect 3. Completion problems & fading |
| Assumed mechanism of the 3 cognitive load effects? | They reduce extraneous load invoked by suboptimal instructional designs. |
| Goal-free effect | Problem solving free of a goal. Reducex extraneous loads, fewer errors & better learning |
| Worked example effect | Providing a step-by-step guide of a problem. Effective & efficient. |
| Completion problem effect | Takes into account developing knowledge. Fading strategy. There are various examples: - Fully worked-out exmaples - Complete increasingly more steps in partially worked-out examples - Solve entire practice problems. |
| Limitations for completion problem effect? | - Design of good examples is difficult - Effect is dependent on prior knowledge of the learner & element interactivity |
| What are instructional design principles from CLT research? | 1. Split-attentional principle/effect 2. Modality principle/effect 3. Redundancy principle/effect |
| Why do the effects of instructional design principles work? | Because cognitive load effects depend on element interactivity (if teh task is super simple, you're not going to find this effect) and prior knowledge of learner. |
| Split-attentional principle/effect | Students learn better when the instructional material does nto require them to split attention between multiple soruces of mutually referring information, distributed either in time or in space. This reduces extraneous load (no integration diff sources) |
| Modality principle/effect | When you have visual information, students learn better when aditional verbal information is presented as speech rather than on-screen text. |
| Redundancy principle/effect | Redundant materials interfere with learning, e.g. same information in multiple formats. Because learners invest effortful processing but later learn that information is identical. Works by reducing extraneous load by everything in a diagram. |
| Expertise reversal effect | Cognitive load effects found for novice learners are not found or reversed for high expertise learners. |
| Why is there an expertise reversal effect? | 1. Single high-level elements takes less WM capacity than processing many low level elements --> less burden on WM capacity compared to novices 2. Experts bypass WM limitations through highly automated schemas. |
| How can you increase WM capacity load? | Offer variability & self-explanation effect |
| Self-explanation effect | Asks for self-explanations while studying a worked-example effect or completion problem. This only works if cognitive load capacity is not exceeded. |
| Is PBL effective for learning? | PBL was superior when it comes to - LT retention - Skill development - Satisfaction of students and teachers Conventional is effective for - short-term retention, as measured by standardized board exams |
Created by:
DoorBella
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