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2) Biopsych
AP Psych Unit 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| neuroscience | the scientific study of neurons and the nervous system |
| neuron(s) | the basic "building block" cell of the nervous system, there are many types |
| dendrite(s) | the branch-like projections on neurons that receive messages from other neurons |
| soma | the cell body of a neuron, which is composed of a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm enclosed in a membrane |
| axon(s) | the tail of a neuron along which electrical signals are carried, which is achieved by a brief change in the electric charge of the cell |
| axon hillock(s) | the juncture between the cell body and the axon |
| myelin (sheath) | a fatty white substance wrapped around the axon that both protects the axon and increases the speed of the action potential |
| action potential | the brief change in electrical charge that radiates down the axon |
| multiple sclerosis | an autoimmune disease where the body attacks the myelin sheaths on neurons, which can lead to loss of strength, muscle control, and coordination |
| terminal button(s) | knobs at the end of each axon from which neurotransmitters are released into the synapse |
| synapse | where one neuron's terminal buttons meet another neuron's dendrites to exchange information through neurotransmitters |
| presynaptic | the ___________________ neuron is the one that comes before the synapse, and releases the neurotransmitters |
| postsynaptic | the ___________________ neuron is the one that comes after the synapse, and receives signals at its dendrites |
| neural chain | a term used to describe the web of interconnections between neurons |
| depolarization | the first step towards conducting a signal along a neuron where Na+ ions rush into the cell and K+ ions temporarily rush out of the cell, leaving more positive charges on the inside |
| firing threshold | the point at which enough positive charges have built up inside the neuron that an action potential will be produced |
| refractory (period) | the brief period after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again |
| resting potential | the electrical state of the cell when not in use, sitting at -70mV |
| vesicle(s) | the sub-cellular structures that release neurotransmitters when stimulated with an action potential |
| reuptake | the process by which chemicals are released by the synaptic Cleft and re-enter the original neuron to be used again |
| afferent (neurons) | neurons which carry sensory information to the central nervous system |
| interneuron(s) | neurons which make up the brain and spinal chord |
| efferent (neurons) | neurons which transmit motor messages from the central nervous system to muscles and glands |
| reflex arc | a term to describe the process by which sensory signals are sent directly to the spinal cord and then to motor neurons before the brain is ever engaged, allowing for faster reaction times |
| glial (cells) | support cells in the brain that far outnumber neurons, they act to provide nutrients and myelin, as well as function as immune cells in the brain |
| (genetic) predisposition | an inclination towards some characteristic that could be the result of genetics or the environment |
| epigenetic(s) | the phenomenon where your environment influences which genes are biologically expressed |
| genotype | which combination of genes are physically in your DNA |
| phenotype | the traits that are actually expressed as a result of environmental and genotypic conditions |
| 23 | humans have _____(#) pairs of chromosomes |
| XX | the chromosome pairing for biological females |
| XY | the chromosome pairing for biological males |
| determinism | genetic _________________ states that you are definitely going to express some certain trait |
| turner syndrome | a genetic abnormality where there is an incomplete Y chromosome (XO) that can lead to physical and intellectual defects |
| down syndrome | a genetic abnormality where there is an extra 21st chromosome that can lead to intellectual disabilities, enlarged tongues, and short stature, among other things |
| williams syndrome | a genetic abnormality where there is a deletion of a certain gene on the 7th chromosome that leads to extreme extroversion, they are below average intellectually and cannot form prejudices |
| PKU | phenylketonuria - a genetic abnormality where to recessive genes lead to the absence of an enzyme that breaks down a certain protein that attacks the central nervous system |
| lesion(ing) | a brain research method where a part of the brain is surgically removed |
| Phineas Gage | a 19th century railroad worker who had part of his frontal/prefrontal cortex removed by a projectile tamping iron, he survived and provided unique insight into the specificity of the brain |
| contralateralization | the term used to describe how each side of the brain controls the opposite side of the body |
| specificity | the term used to describe how certain areas of the brain are designed for certain tasks/events |
| hemispherectomy | the surgical procedure by which one hemisphere of the brain is removed, usually to combat life threatening disorders such as epilepsy |
| frontal (lobe) | the cerebral lobe that plays roles in speaking and muscular activity, located towards the front of the head |
| prefrontal cortex | the brain area that acts as the executive of the brain, carrying out planning, decision making, judgement, and self-control, it's located towards the front of the frontal lobe |
| motor cortex | the part of the brain responsible for every voluntary movement and located along the border of the parietal lobe |
| somatosensory cortex | the part of the brain that registers all touch sensations and is located along the border of the frontal lobe |
| broca's area | the brain area responsible for creating expressive speech located in the frontal lobe |
| parietal (lobe) | the large lobe on the top/crown of the head that houses the somatosensory cortex |
| occipital (lobe) | the lobe to the rear of the cortex that houses the primary visual cortex |
| primary visual cortex | the brain area that is responsible for taking visual sensory input and interpreting it, it's located in the very rear of the head |
| temporal (lobe) | the lobe located to the sides of the head, just above the ears, that houses the auditory cortex |
| auditory cortex | the brain area responsible for taking auditory input and interpreting it, it's located in the temporal lobe |
| wernicke's area | the brain area responsible, at least in part, for language comprehension, located in the temporal lobe |
| cortex | the wrinkled, convoluted shell of the brain that is divided into four lobes |
| MRI | a brain scan technique that shows extreme structural detail, aka magnetic resonance imaging |
| PET (scan) | a brain scan technique that indicates levels of activity in general locations by using a tracer shot of radioactive glucose |
| fMRI | a brain scan technique that shows extreme structure AND functional detail by measuring changes in oxygenation, aka functional MRI |
| EEG | a brain scan technique that shows brain wave activity, it does not show location very clearly, but is used extensively in sleep studies, aka electroencephalogram |
| CT (scan) | a brain scan technique that uses a 3D x-ray machine to show structure for injuries, it can be used on other body parts as well |
| cerebellum | the brain structure involved in any coordinated sequence of movements and is one center of balance, it's located at the brain stem below the occipital lobe |
| limbic system | the group of brain structures that are mostly responsible for emotion and motivation |
| hippocampus | the part of the limbic system that is responsible for the formation of new memories and spatial navigation |
| amygdala | The part of the limbic system that is heavily involved in primitive emotions like anger, fear, and aggression and well as sex drive, it is also viewed to determine the emotional relevance of any incoming stimuli |
| hypothalamus | the part of the limbic system that regulates appetite, thirst, sex drive, sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, and the fight or flight response, it also directs the pituitary gland in controlling the endocrine system |
| lateral (hypothalamus) | the part of the hypothalamus that tells you to eat when you are hungry |
| ventromedial (hypothalamus) | the part of the hypothalamus that tells you to stop eating when you are satiated |
| pituitary gland | the brain area considered to be the master gland that directs the endocrine system, it also secretes HGH and oxytocin |
| pons | the jutting area on the upper spinal chord that may be responsible for dreams, but also plays a role in maintaining some vital functions |
| medulla | a band of nerve fibers below the pons that controls autonomic functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and swallowing |
| corpus callosum | a large bundle of fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres |
| thalamus | an egg shaped structure in the center of the brain that takes in all sensory information (except smell), and reroutes it to it's corresponding cortex |
| reticular formation | the brain stem structure that alerts the brain to incoming signals so that the brain is ready to react quicker, aka reticular activating system |
| ventricle(s) | interconnected fluid filled extensions of the spinal chord that branch out within the interior of the brain, they provide cushioning against damage |
| human growth hormone | HGH - secreted by the pituitary gland throughout life, especially in puberty |
| oxytocin | the tend and befriend hormone that helps humans create bonds between each other, especially between lovers and close friends |
| pineal (gland) | a gland located in the inner central brain that secretes melatonin to induce sleep |
| melatonin | a hormone that induces sleep and is secreted by the pineal gland |
| thyroid (gland) | a gland located in the neck that secretes thyroxine and regulates growth and metabolism |
| thyroxine | a hormone that increases metabolism and thus induces growth, it is secreted by the thyroid |
| adrenal(s) | glands that are located above the kidneys that secrete adrenaline/epinephrine |
| epinephrine | a hormone (and also a neurotransmitter) that is secreted by the adrenals which induces the fight or flight response |
| pancreas | a gland/organ located in the central abdomen that secretes insulin |
| insulin | a hormone that promotes the absorption of glucose into cells and is secreted by the pancreas |
| testes | male reproductive glands that secrete androgens such as testosterone |
| ovaries | female reproductive glands that secrete estrogen |
| hormone(s) | chemical messengers carried throughout the blood that are the primary communicators of the endocrine system, they take longer to get to where they are going, but last longer |
| neurotransmitter(s) | chemical messengers of the nervous system that carry signals almost instantly in the synapses between neurons |
| central (nervous system) | the part of the nervous system that is directly in the center of the body and consisting of the brain and spinal chord that controls your survival |
| peripheral (nervous system) | the part of the nervous system that consists of all of the nerve cells that are not part of the central nervous system |
| automatic (system) | the division of the peripheral nervous system which controls things that happen sub-consciously (hormone secretion, blood pressure, etc.) |
| somatic (system) | the division of the peripheral nervous system which controls voluntary movements |
| sympathetic (system) | the division of the autonomic system which controls the fight or flight response |
| parasympathetic (system) | the division of the autonomic system which is the opponent process to the sympathetic system and works to return the body to a calm state |
| glutamate | the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, too much activity can result in seizure disorders, it may also play a role in bipolar degenerative disorders of CNS |
| GABA | the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, aka gamma aminobutyric acid, low levels linked with anxiety and seizure disorders |
| substance P | high levels of this neurotransmitter that sends pain messages may be linked with fibromyalgia and other pain disorders |
| endorphin(s) | neurotransmitters which alleviate pain, aka endogenous morphine, decreased activity linked to fibromyalgia and other pain disorders |
| epinephrine | a neurotransmitter involved in alertness and arousal (fight or flight), in low levels it may be linked to depression |
| acetylcholine | a neurotransmitter involved in voluntary muscle movements and memory (ACh), a loss of ACh neurons is linked with alzheimers |
| serotonin | a neurotransmitter that is involved in regulating appetite, sleep, and mood, low levels linked with depression and anxiety |
| dopamine | a neurotransmitter involved in regulating pleasure, muscular control, learning, and attention, excess linked to schizophrenia while low levels are linked to parkinson's disease. |
| agonist(s) | drugs that enhance or amplify the action of a neurotransmitter |
| antagonist(s) | drugs that inhibit/impede the action of a neurotransmitter |
| mirror (neurons) | neurons that fire in your brain when you see something as if you too were doing that something, this could be highly liked to human behaviors of empathy, language, and imitation |
| excitatory | an ________________ chemical stimulates the firing of messages within the brain |
| inhibitory | an ________________ chemical slows transmission of neural messages |
| association (cortex) | a part of the brain that could make up 3/4 of the cortex that is responsible for linking relevance and meaning to sensory input |
| lateralization | a term that describes how the right hemisphere is better at visual, spatial, and artistic tasks while the left hemisphere is better at mathematical, logical, analytical, and linguistic tasks |
| aphasia(s) | disruptions of speech production or comprehension that result from damage to the language centers of the brain |
| neurogenesis | the creation of new neurons |
| (brain) plasticity | a term to describe how the brain seems to be able to, even as we age, wire and re-wire itself in response to new situations and information |
| long term potentiation | a term to describe how triggering the same sequence of neurons over time creates faster and more efficient pathways for that task |
| heritability | the amount of difference between individuals that seems to be accounted for by heredity (i.e. they are 40% different because of their heredity) |
| synaptic gap/synapse | the small gap where neurotransmitters flow between neurons |
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amcfarland
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