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Psychobio EXAM 4
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Autonomic nervous system | part of the PNS that controls the internal organs of the body (emotional processing- unconscious state) |
| Sympathetic nervous system | responsible for the “fight or flight” responses → increased alertness, metabolic rate, respiration, blood pressure, heart rate, sweating |
| Affect= emotion | Automatic nervous system → emotional processing (unconscious) which influences the Limbic system (emotional processing- conscious) |
| James Lang Theory of Emotion | Suggest that autonomic arousal/ skeletal action occurs first in an emotion |
| Facial feedback | facial expression directly impacts emotional experience/ our emotional states comes from body signals, not the other way around |
| Autonomic failure | fight or flight response fails to kick in |
| Limbic system | consists of a group of forebrain areas surrounding the thalamus involved in our behavioral/ emotional responses (emotional processing- conscious) Communication between frontal lobe/ amygdala influences emotion |
| Basic emotion | cross-cultural affective experiences present at birth that all humans experience (happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise) |
| Somatic markers | are feelings in the body that are associated w/ emotions, such as rapid heartbeat w/ anxiety or of nausea w/ disgust “markers” can be used for us to guide our behavior based off emotional states |
| Amygdala | structure of the limbic system primarily involved in visually detecting fear/ danger, kicks in the the sympathetic nervous system responses responsible for emotional states |
| Startle reflex | defensive reaction to potential threats, such as loud nosies or surprising stimuli, modulated by the amygdala (unlearned fear) |
| Facial action coding system (FACS) | video tape someone based on facial expressions/ determine the emotional state they are in |
| Bednucleus of the striata terminalis (BNST) | limbic system structure that connect to the amygdala that influences people’s attention to possible threats (learned fears) |
| Kluver-Bucy syndrome | arises from damage to the amygdala, monkeys with this syndrome are tame/ placid → additionally have impaired social behaviors |
| Urbach-Wiethe Disease | rare genetic condition that causes calcium to regulate in the amygdala until it wastes away - avoid eye contact - incorrectly appraised emotions |
| HPA (hypothalamic-pitutiary adrenal) | activation associated with stress release CRH/ ACTH from pituitary gland central to anxiety/ mood disorders |
| Insual | disgust |
| Right Temporopanietal junction (TPJ) | involved in the processing of information in terms of the ability of an individual to orient attention to new stimuli |
| Somatic marker hypothesis | translation of emotional experience with our body states |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | stimulus that leads to an automatic response |
| conditioned response (CR) | automatic response established by training to a neutral stimulus |
| Sensory memory | immediate events (seconds) |
| Short-term memory (STM) | chunks of info held in in rehearsal (minutes) |
| Long term memory (LTM) | semi-permanent or permanent storage (years) |
| Akinson-Shiffrin model | Incoming info → Sensory → STM (maintenance via rehearsal) → LTM → retrieval to STM |
| Baddely-Hitch model | working memory system also has additional mechanisms to help w/ memory |
| Phonological loop | rooted in auditory info/ dedicated to working memory/ serves to temporarily hold verbal info |
| Episodic buffer | temporary storage system that is able to combine info from the phonological loop EX: remebering what happened at a 21st bday |
| Visual-spatial sketchpad | ability temporarily to hold visual/ spaital info such as location of a parked care |
| Central executive | flexible system responsible for the control/ regulation of cognitive processes/ directs focus and targets info, making WM (working memory) and LTM work together |
| Explicit (declarative) LT memory | memories of facts/ events we can consciously remember and recall/ declare |
| Implicit LTM (non-declarative/ unconscious) | not part of consciousness and formed through behaviors (learning how to ride a bike or fear of spiders) |
| Hippocampus | strcutre embedded in the temporal lobe that plays a role in the movement of info from STM → LTM (consolidation) - encoding predicts later source memory/ a "remember response |
| Sharp-wave ripples (SWR) | are bursts of highly synchronous neural activity in the hippocampus thought to be involved in memory/ retrieval |
| Retrograde amnesia | an inability to recall past events |
| Anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| Place cells | are hippocampal neurons that respond when an animal is in a particular location and looking in a particular direction |
| Time cells | hippocampal cells that respond at a particular point in a sequence of time |
| Grid cells | in entorhinal cortex (cortex that surround hippocampus), different cells respond to different locations in 2D space |
| Striatum of the basal ganglia (caudate + putamen) | control the types of learning involved in procedural memories (probabilistic/ sequence learning) |
| Hebbian hypothesis | neurons that fire together wire together |
| Hebbian synapse | when an axon of cell A repeatedly excites cell B, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one of both cells such as A’s efficiency as one of the cells firing B is incresed |
| Long term potentiation | occurs when synaptic connections are strengthened through frequent activation requires |
| specificity | if some synapses have been active/ others not, omly the active ones become strengthed |
| cooperativity | nearly simultaneous stimulation from two input strengths LTP more than repeated stimulation by a single axon |
| associativity | pairing a weak input w/ a strong input enhances later response to the weak input (when compared to no stimulation at all) |
| Receptors for glutamate (2) | AMPA receptors (cause neuron to fire) NMDA receptors (open up/ make depolarization even stronger) → work w/ each other when it comes to learning |
| Nodes | representations of memories in the brain (a cat is an animal) |
| Associations | are links between nodes that can turned on/ off during memory retrieval (dogs and birds are also animals) |
| Spreading activation | when a part of the memory network is activated, activation spreads along associative pathways to related areas in memory |
| Remember/ know distinction | separate brain regions involved in remembering vs. knowing faces |
| Rhinal cortex | encoding predicts later feelings of familiarity/ a “know” response |
| Short term memory loss | loss of recent events |
| Apolipoprotein E (APOE) | codes for a protein involved in lipid metabolism in the brain |
| Amyloid | insoluble deposits of beta-amyloid peptide/ cellular material outside and around neurons |
| Neurofibrillary tangles | aggregates of the microtubule-associated protein tau which can accumlate inside neurons |
| Alzheimer's disease | disease of neurodegeneration that destroys memory and other mental functions 7th leading cause of death in US |
| Intelligence | our ability to acquire/ apply knowledge/ skills |
| Parietal-frontal integration theory (P-FIT) | a theory that explains how intelligence is represented in the brain |
| hierarchical brain networks | converge info across the frontal/ parietal lobes for processing theory/ advanced cognition (hence, intelligence) |
| convergent thinking | meaning using what you already know to produce a solution to a problem |
| divergent thinking | more accurate representation of intelligence → new solutions to a problem |
| Wallas model of creative processes (4 stages) | preparation, incubation, illumination, vertification - model states we can all be creative/ evolves through these 4 stages |
| Preparation | gathering info/ doing prep work |
| Incubation | not thinking abt the problem |
| Illumination | a new idea or insight emerges |
| Verification | testing… does the new idea actually work |
| Language | is a communication system in which a limited number of signals can be combined upon to produce messages SVO strucutre= subject, verb, object |
| Basic units of speech | Phonemes Morphemes Words Phrases |
| Phonemes | basic units of sound that can change the meaning of a word |
| Morphemes | basic unit of meaning that exist in a word/ change value of word |
| Words | a single distinct element of speech or writing |
| Phrases | a small group of worlds together as a conceptual unit sentences |
| Semantics | what does a certain word mean |
| Syntax | grammatical rules |
| Piamatics | social rules in given language |
| Piosody | inflection/ intonation |
| Articulators | organs above the larynx (togue, lips, teeth, hard palate) designed for vocalization |
| Broca’s aphasia (production or non-fluent aphasia) | cannot produce language (syntax) → frontal lobe |
| Wernicke’s aphasia (comprehension or fluent-aphasia) | cannot understand meaning of language (semantics) |
| Semantic error | "He drinks his coffee w/ cream and dog”= produces N400 → semantic -5.5 on scale |
| Syntatic error | “He prefers to solve problems herself”= produces LAN (left anterior negativity) (-3.1 on scale) |
| Universal grammar | system of common rules/ properties for learning any of the world’s languages |
| Language acquisition device (chomsky/ pinker) | a mental capacity that allows human infants to acquire/ produce language |
| Attention | ability to take notice of someone or something can be selective in the sense that we focus on one input/ tas while ignoring other stimuli |
| Endogenous/ voluntary attention | attention that we intentionally (volitionally) direct, like focusing a spotlight on a visual scene |
| Spatial attention | ability to focus that spotlight to a given region of personal space |
| Exogenous/ involuntary attention | when something that is salient within our surroundings captures our attention |
| Corbetta & Shulman (2000) prosed two separate neural networks for attentional control | - goal-directed (endogenous) - stimulus-driven (exogenous) |
| Goal-directed (endogenous) | Frontal eye fields (FEF) Intraparietal sulci (IPS) |
| Stimulus-driven (exogenous) | Ventral frontal cortex (VFC) Temporoparietal junction (TPJ) |
| Inattentional blindness | people fail to see a prominent stimulus, even if they’re staring right at it |
| Late selection | that all info is analysed relatively completely/ occurs after the analysis is finished |
| Early selection | attended info is privileged from the get-go unattended info receives little analysis/ is never perceived |
| Consciousness | the awareness of our unique cognitive events (thougts, memories, feelings, sensations, environments) |
| Harks back to the mind/body problem | can conscious experience be explained by neuroscientifc phenomena |
| Qualia | individual instances of subjective, conscious experience |
| Umvelt (von Uexkull) | an organism’s model of a (self-centered) world |
| Blind sight | phenomena where disruptions to visual cortex lead to an inability for patients to see (blindness) however they still react to their enviroment (sight?) |
| Neuronal workspace | conscious state, recurrent processing amplifies/ sustains a neuronal representation, allowing the corresponding info to be globally accessed by local processors |
| psychiatry | diagnosis, prevention, study, treatment of mental disorders |
| Neurology | dealing w/ disorders of the nervous system |
| Mood or affective disorders | these are a mental health condition where the main underlying feature is impacted mood |
| Mood Depressive Disorder (MDD) | mental health disorder by depressed mood or loss of interest in activites |
| Seasonal Affective Disorder | impacted mood state because of certain seasons, most often fall or winter |
| Paranoid personality disorder (PPD) | mental condition in which a person has a long-term pattern of distrust/ suspicion of others |
| Dysthymia (DD) | milder, but long-lasting form of depression, could have major depression by fluctuating dysphoria |
| Cyclothymia | rare mood disorder causes emotional ups/ downs but not super extreme, periods when mood noticebly shifts |
| Monoamine hypothesis of depression | postulates that the deficit of certain neurotransmitters (monoamines) are responsible for the corresponding features of depression |
| Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) | constitutes a system that modulates limbic function/ emotional processing |
| Congitive behavioral therpay (CBT) | designed to restore balance to this system |
| Schizophrenia | mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior/ an inability to tell what is real and not real |
| Positive symptoms | present of something that shouldn’t be there (hallucnations) |
| Negative symptoms | absent of something that should be there (hard time moving/ no tone in voice) |
| Cognitve symptoms | cogntive disability (attention, verbal learning, memory, issues w/ problem solving) |
| First eposide or psychotic break | symptoms usually arise, not really til late teens, having disorganized thoughts |
| Prodromial stage | stop symptoms from emerging is in this stage |
| Disconnection hypothesis | the “disengagment” is related to “disconnection” at the anatomical/ psychological level in the brain (“break”) |
| Typical antipsychotics (first generation) | drugs used in the 1950s to treat the extreme symptoms (delusions, hallucinations) in patients w/ schizophrenia (dopamine shock system) |
| Atypical antipsychotics (second generation) | work on the dopamine system but are less likely to cause motor disabilities (ex: tardive dyskenesia) |
| Dopamine model | postulates “excessive dopamine activity” |
| GABA | postmortem studies have shown reduction in the activation of an enzyme that synthesizes GABA in schizophrenia |
| Glutamate | drugs that work on glutamatergic activity (NMDAR blockers= ketamine, PCP) produce the full rnage of schizophrenia symptoms/ cognitive deficits |
| Addicition | neuropsychological condition that relies on a dependence on a certain behavior, which may or may not involve psychoactive compunds |
| Complex hertiability | increase in first degree relatives, but also in adopted children |
| Compulsion | overwhelming involvement in the behavior |
| Compulsive seeking | preoccupied w/ seeking the addicition |
| Withdrawal/ Relapse | susiptible to fall back into the behavior and struggle associated w/ memory |
| Medial forebrain bundle/ Ventral tegmental area (VTA) in midbrain | found to be particuarly effective sites/ these sites have been termed “pleasure centers” |
| Nucleus accumbens | dopamine rich center in the limbic area |
| prefrontal cortex | short term memory |
| amygdala | moderates emotional infleunces on memory- fear response |
| MFB | medial forebrain bundle |
| Behavioral addictions | compulsive behaviors engaged in to receive a natural reward (ex: sexual addicition/ pathological gambling) |
| Nalmetene | opioid antagonsist |
| Y-box | excessive compulsive scale |
| Anxiety disorders | are a group of mental disorders characterized by the presence of maladaptive anixety/ fear |
| Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) | worrying constantly/ can’t control the worrying |
| Phobia | persistent, excessive fear of an object, person or situation |
| Panic disorders/ PTSD | developes when person experienced a scary/ shocking event |
| Social anixety disorder (SAD) | fear/ anixety lead to avoidance that can disrupt your life/ fear of being watched/ judged by others |
| Obessvie-complusive disorder | person experiences uncontrollable/ recurring thoughts (obessions)/ engagaes in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) |
| Situational anxiety | happens in response to new/ stressful situations |
| Anxiety | feeling of apprehension caused by anticipation of danger (internal or external) |
| Fear | unpleasurable emotional state consisting of physioloigcal changes in response to a relatisic threat/ danger |
| Panic | intense, sudden feeling of fear accompanied by psycholoigcal responses |
| Obession | persistent preoccupation w/ something or someone |
| State | something that your feeling at a point in time (“I’m feelig anxious”) |
| Trait | who you are as a person (“I’m an anxious person”) |
| Fear circuit (amygdala) | persistently scared of something → centered around the amygdala |
| Corticostriatal-thalamocoritcal circuit | brain circuit that controls movement execution, habit formation and reward |
| Panic disorder | related to acitivty of the locus coeruleus, a structure involved in the production of nonrepinephrine |
| Anxiolytics | drugs that reduce anixety |
| Dementia | global, progressive loss of cognitive ability that ultimately impairs independent function |
| Vascular dementia | progressive worsening of cogntiive fucntions due to vascular changes/ impaired blood flow in the brain - 2nd leading cause of dementia - confusion/ restlessness |
| Causes of Vascular dementia | Stroke Atherosclerosis TIA= transient ischemic attack --> not getting enough blood |
| Lewy Body dementia (LBD) | Caused by alpha-synuclein deposits (Lewy bodies) in the NS - motor/ alterness issues --> depression/ confusion - lewy bodies kill off the brain |
| Frontal-Temporal Lobar Degeneration | Neurodegeneration of the frontal/ temporal lobe specifically - personality changes, loss of socially acceptable emotions |
| PPA (primary progressive afasia) | progress loss of language ability |
| Multiple Sclerosis (MS) | Most common CNS autoimmune disorder Cause is unknown/ but thought to be either autoimmune |
| Demyelinating disease | insulting covers of nerve cells in the brain/ spinal cord are damaged |
| Interferon | ramps down inflammation in the spinal cord → slows down progression of MS |
| Symptoms | Visual Muscle coordination/ weakness Trouble w/ sensation |
| Main anatomical characteristics: | scars/ inflammations |
| Scars | lesions that form in the white matter |
| Inflammations | caused by immune response |
| Amytrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) | Main symptoms are motor related → muscle weakness, spasms, are diagnosed through behavioral evaluation by a neurologist |
| Neurodegenerative | characterized by the death of neurons which control voluntary muscles (both upper/ lower neurons) --> Only causes motor degeneration |
| Epilepsy | Group of neurological disorders associated w/ seizures or fits (uncontrolled, jerking movements due to excessive uncoordinated) → although sometimes synchronous brain activity |
| Origins include (epilepsy) | Head injury Brain tumors Brain infection Substance abuse/ withdrawl |
| Foci | where epilepsy starts |
| Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS): | works as spinal cord stimulator and stimulating that nerve → could help patient w/ epliespy → could make it worse |
| Anti-eptiletic drugs (AEDs) | treatment for epileptic seizures |
| Autism Specturm Disorders (ASD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interactions, communication, behavior |
| Austism “triad" | communication stereotypic/ repetitive behaviors interaction |
| Communication | an inability to develop speech to meet their daily communication needs |
| Stereotypic/ repetitive behaviors | repetitive movements (head rolling, hand flapping, body rocking), ritualistic behavior, compulsive behaviors, self-injury |
| Interaction | social reciprocity, a lack of social intitution, less eye contact, tantrums, emotion, recognition |
| Specturm disorder | meaning that whole there are core features, most patients w/ autism fall along a spectrum of impairments |
| Asperger’s | relatively normal language abilities/ intelligence |
| HFA (high functioning Austism) | retained cognitive abilities w/ language delay |
| PDD-NOS (Pervasive developmental disorder- not otherwise specifed) | atypical autism severe impairment in social/ communicative abilities, autism that doesn’t fit typical autism diagnositc categories |
| Exisiting DSM-V category- autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | includes childhood disintergrative disorder (CDD), sensory processing disorder (SPD), Rett’s syndrome, savantism |
| Hyperserotonemia | higher levels of the monoamine neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) found in the blood (whole blood serotonin or WBS) |
| Pentrace | how much genetic variation (genotype) contributes to the condition (phenotype) |
| Fragile X syndrome (FXS) | most common inherited form of mental retardation, is an x-linked disorder that occurs from the results of silencing a single gene on the X chronomsome (FMR1) |
| Physical features (FXS) | Large or prominent ears Enlarged head circumference Elongated face |
| Behavioral symptoms (FXS) | Anxiety, emotional lability, agression/ self-injurious behaviors FXS is the most common known cause of ASD BUT not all individuals w/ ASD have FMR1 mutations |
| Learning Disabilities | Any sort of classification where the individual has difficulty learning in a typical manner |
| Dyslexia | trouble w/ reading |
| Dsycalculia | difficulty learning/ executing arithmetic, understanding numbers/ calculations |
| Dysgraphia | impaired handwriting/ finger sequencing |
| Visual word form area | part of the occipital-temporal lobe involved in reading |
| Attention Deficit Hyperacitivity Disorder (ADHD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder charcterized by deficits in attention, often the result of or accompanied by heightened levels of activity |
| Broken into 2 type (ADHD) | 1. inattentive 2. hyperactive/ impulsive |
| Inattentive | limited focus, easily distracted, daydreams, struggles to follow insutrcutions |
| hyperactive/ impulsive | impatient, fidgeting, talking non-stop, interrupting, difficulty, sitting stil |
| 2 categories of treatment (ADHD) | 1. behavioral 2. psychoparmacological |
| Behavioral | including ehavior therapy, CBT, family counseling, education counseling |
| Psychopharmacological | mainly through stimulant-based medications (methlphenidate, amphetamine salts) work on both nonrepinephrine (NA)/ dopamine (DA) release |
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