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PSC100 CH10
Reasoning and Problem Solving
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| delay (temporal) discounting | people diminish the value of future gains the longer they must wait for them |
| self control | an executive function that involves initiating, sustaining, and inhibiting behavior |
| deductive reasoning | moving from general knowledge and principles to more specific knowledge and examples (general -> specific) |
| inductive reasoning | using specific observations and real examples to infer general theories about the world (specific -> general) |
| syllogism | logical system devised by Aristotle in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of given propositions (premises) |
| conditional syllogism | "If p then q" "If A is true, then B is true" |
| antecedent | p in "if p is true, then q is true" |
| consequent | q in "if p is true, then q is true" |
| modus ponens | under conditions when the statement is accepted and the antecedent (p) holds as true, the consequent (q) can be treated as true (if p then q) |
| modus tollens | "if q is false, then p is false" (if ~q, then ~p) |
| denial of the antecedent | you may NOT conclude "if P is false, then Q is false" (fallacy/error) |
| property induction | generalizing properties or feature from one exemplar of a category to another |
| premise-conclusion similarity | gorillas and orangutans are similar (vs. gorillas and lizards) |
| premise typicality | crows are typical birds (vs. penguins) |
| premise diversity | French and Chinese are very different from each other cuturally (vs. French and Belgians) |
| Premise monotonicity | if the French, Chinese, Nigerians, Brazilians, and Canadian First Nations all celebrate Thanksgiving, the conclusion everyone does is more compelling |
| confirmation bias | we favor evidence that supports our beliefs, expectations, or hypotheses |
| causal reasoning | ability to understand why something happens, to determing the causes of specific effects |
| directionality | causes precede effects |
| causal launching | causation associated with a direction (eg. one object responsible for the movement of another) |
| probabilistic | the presence of a cause does not guarantee an effect |
| covariation | the likelihood of two events occurring together` |
| temporal order | the arrangement of events over time |
| intervention | observing the consequences of one's own actions |
| illusionary correlations | when people make connections between variables that are unrelated, tend to occur for statistically infrequent events, which draw attention and are remembered better (like superstitious) |
| counterfactual reasoning | considering alternative outcomes, contrary to what has already occurred in reality |
| Bayes' Rule | gives us a mathematical tool for combining what we know from experience (priors) and what the evidence in front of us right now is telling us |
| Bayesian inference | estimates the probability of a hypothesis being true based on the current evidence and your preexisting knowledge P(H | E) = [P(E | H)×P(H)] / P(E) |
| actions/operators | need to be determined and enacted to move from the given state to the goal state |
| routine problems | problems that are familiar and the solutions are known |
| nonroutine problems | problems that are more difficult because they are not familiar, and the solution is not apparent |
| insight | describes the process of suddenly gaining a solution to a problem |
| transfer solutions | the way you solve one problem generalizes to solving others |
| analogical reasoning | helps people find solutions by transferring their knowledge from other problems |
| random trial and error | randomly selecting and applying different operators in the hope that a problem will get solved |
| hill climbing | selecting options that move the problem solver a little closer to the end state, step by step |
| problem finding | finding new ways to frame questions and perceiving unrecognized needs and problems |
| problem identification | noticing a problem in need of a solution |
| problem definition and redefinition | developing an approach that renders a problem tractable, or manageable |
| remote associates | creative ideas that are removed, or remote, from the original formulation of a problem |
| ultimatum game | used to study social reasoning; two people share $10; proposer offers a split; responder chooses to take or refuse offer |
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