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psych test 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| collective unconscious | a collection of knowledge and imagery that every person is born with and is shared by all human beings due to ancestral experience |
| melatonin | a hormone that your brain produces in response to darkness that helps with the timing of your circadian rhythms and sleep |
| parasomnia | a sleep disorder that involves unusual and undesirable physical events or experiences that disrupt sleep |
| restless leg syndrome | chronic movement disorder where patients have an irresistible urge to move their legs |
| rotating shift work | work by having several set shifts and rotating which employees work the shifts over the course of a week or month |
| sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) | a disorder when a sleeping infant, who was healthy, is found unexpectantly dead |
| suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) | bilateral structure located in the anterior part of the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms |
| binaural cue | the use of both ears to identify sounds |
| Gestalt psychology | the whole of anything is greater than its parts |
| interaural level difference | the sound coming from the right side of your body is more intense in your right ear than your left ear, and vice versa |
| interaural timing difference | the difference in arrival time of a sound between 2 ears |
| Meissner's corpuscle | skin nerve ending responsible for transmitting sensations of fine touch and vibration |
| Merkel's disk | a main type of tactical end organ for sensing gentle touch for sophisticated sensory tasks |
| Meniere's disease | an inner ear disorder causing vertigo and hearing loss |
| neuropathic pain | nerve pain that can happen if your nervous system gets damaged or malfunctions |
| nociception | the detection of painful stimuli |
| Pacinian corpuscle | a type of sensory nerve ending that is sensitive to touch and vibration such as skin in hands and feet |
| Ruffini corpuscle | an end organ of certain sensory neurons that branches out parallel to the skin and responds to steady pressure |
| sensorineural hearing loss | hearing loss that results from damage to the inner ear, auditory nerve, or brain |
| associative learning | learning about the relationship between 2 separate stimuli |
| cognitive map | mental representation of objects and places in the environment |
| higher-order conditioning | when organisms make a connection between 3 or more stimuli that occurred together |
| latent learning | knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it |
| law of effect | behaviors with satisfying outcomes are more likely to occur |
| radical behaviorism | everything an organism does is a behavior thinking and feeling cannot explain behavior |
| secondary reinforcer | a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer |
| vicarious punishment | a decrease in the frequency of certain behaviors after seeing others punished for the same action |
| vicarious reinforcement | an increase in the frequency of certain behaviors after seeing others rewarded for the same action |
| analytical intelligence | the ability to complete academic and problem solving tasks |
| anchoring bias | people's tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive on a topic |
| cognitive script | mental instructions a person uses to understand how to navigate a social interaction or predict how others expect them to behave |
| creative intelligence | the ability to solve problems by imagining new and unique solutions |
| crystallized intelligence | the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life |
| cultural intelligence | one's ability to adapt when confronted with problems arising in interactions with people or artifacts of other cultures |
| divergent thinking | thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions |
| emotional intelligence | the ability to manage your own emotions and understand the emotions of others |
| fluid intelligence | reasoning ability and the ability to generate and manipulate different types of new sensory information in real time |
| Flynn effect | the observed rise over time in standard intelligence scores |
| hindsight bias | phenomenon in which one becomes convinced they accurately predicted an event before it occurred |
| practical intelligence | the ability to find a more optimal fit between themselves and the demands of the environment through adapting, shaping, or selecting a new environment in the pursuit of goals |
| standardization | the process of making a test uniform or setting it to a specific standard |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | the 3 types of intelligence a person can have: analytical, creative, and practical abilities that are viewed as largely distinct |
| consciousness | awareness of the self and surroundings subjective experience of the world |
| altered state of consciousness | state of awareness other than the normal waking state ex: sleep, hypnosis, drug induced |
| attention | the process by which we focus our consciousness |
| change blindness | a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer doesn't notice it, usually not expecting it |
| controlled processes | requires attention, actively focus efforts toward a goal interferes with other functions ex: problem solving, playing a board game with practice become automatic processes |
| automatic processes | require minimal attention, don't interfere with ongoing activities ex: walking, processing sensory information |
| circadian rhythms | the body's natural 24-hour cycles changes in energy level, mood, and efficiency throughout the day light exposure draws us into 24-hr rhythm, problems for the blind causes difficulty adjusting to time zones |
| behavioral characteristics of sleep | minimal movement, stereotyped posture, requires a high degree of stimulation to return to waking consciousness, cardiovascular and brain changes |
| REM sleep | rapid eye movement EEG resembles waking pattern paradoxical sleep (no major muscle movements) |
| paradoxical sleep | signals from the motor cortex to the body are blocked by brainstem, no major muscle movements occur |
| NREM dreams | non rapid eye movement, alternates between REM shorter, more thought-like, repetitive, concerned with daily tasks about an hour and a half long |
| REM dreams | rapid eye movement, alternates between NREM more dreams, emotional, illogical, prone to plot shifts, biologically crucial |
| synchronized sleep | some couples who regularly sleep in the same bed show synchronized sleep cycles, such as same heart rate and synchronized REM sleep episodes however, most experience worst sleep |
| sleep divorce | when couples sleep in separate rooms relationships often improve, less conflict |
| effects of sleep loss/deprivation | fatigue, impaired concentration, immune suppression, irritability, slowed performance, more accidents |
| functions of sleep | restorative, cognition aid, adaptive evolutionary function |
| restorative sleep | body rejuvenation and growth, strengthen immune system |
| sleep as a cognition aid | memory consolidation, enhances synaptic connections |
| adaptive evolutionary function | safety, need to be out of harm's way to sleep energy conservation |
| when are muscles blocked during sleep | blocked in REM sleep not blocked in stage 4 sleep/NREM sleep |
| types sleep disorders | insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep walking/talking, night terrors, nightmares |
| insomnia | persistent problems in falling or staying asleep |
| narcolepsy | uncontrollable sleep attacks, fall asleep straight to REM randomly |
| sleep walking/talking | occurs in stage 4 sleep, person is not conscious, it is not dangerous to wake them up |
| night terrors | high arousal- appearance of being terrified, usually in stage 4 sleep within 2-3 hours of falling asleep (no dreams, can get up and move) usually in the beginning of the night |
| nightmares | occur toward morning, during REM sleep (emotional dream content) can't move |
| sensation and emotion in dreams | most common sensory experiences in dreams are vision and hearing no visual content in dreams if blind at birth or before age 8 most common emotions are anxiety and surprise |
| why do we dream | wish fulfillment, to discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings, information processing/memory consolidation, stimulates neural development, activation-synthesis, threat simulation theory |
| manifest content | what actually happens in a dream, the storyline |
| latent content | the underlying meaning of what happens in a dream |
| activation-synthesis | activation of neurons firing is a result of brainstem activity brain stem sending signals turned into a dream neurons fire in different parts of the brain cerebral cortex synthesizes info into a coherent whole |
| threat simulation theory | dreams allow us to safely and repeatedly gain experience in facing threatening events to aid in our survival dreams help in the recognition, avoidance, and practice dealing with threats when awake |
| incorporation | when an actual event occurring in your body becomes included into the story line of a dream ex: breathing stopping due to sleep apnea and dreams of choking |
| lucid dreaming | consciously knowing you're dreaming occurs in REM sleep can control elements of the dream |
| hypnosis | subjects are fully aware of where they are and what they're doing will not violate moral standards refreshed memories unreliable, and false memories can be implanted secrets are rarely revealed under hypnosis can act much younger, not age regression |
| age regression | when someone mentally and emotionally returns to a younger age |
| posthypnotic suggestion | suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized, can choose to follow or ignore |
| medical uses for hypnosis | useful for pain control, sleeping, and anxiety works best for people who believe it will work ineffective in treating drug dependence or eating disorders |
| theories explaining hypnosis | divided consciousness theory, social influence theory |
| divided consciousness theory | hypnosis is a special state of dissociated/divided consciousness |
| social influence theory | hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative people who go along with the subject role they have agreed to play |
| psychoactive drug | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood |
| physical dependence | physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms |
| psychological dependence | the psychological need to use a drug ex: to relieve negative emotions |
| tolerance | the need for progressively larger doses to achieve the same effect |
| withdrawal | discomfort and distress with discontinued use |
| substance abuse | substance use that causes emotional or physical harm to the individual or others, using substances inappropriately individual still has control over their life at risk for disease, overdose, and addiction |
| addiction | dependence on drugs or alcohol near impossible for them to stop using |
| depressants | drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function ex: alcohol, opioids/narcotics, barbiturates (sedative hypnotic) |
| effects of alcohol | passing out- alcohol slowing activity in the medulla, helps prevent alcohol poisoning b/c can't keep drinking if unconscious vomiting- help get rid of excessive toxins and reduces poisoning blacking out- can't remember b/c no new memories |
| stimulants | drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body function ex: caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines |
| hallucinogens | psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input ex: LSD, marijuana, mushrooms |
| near-death experiences | altered state of consciousness after close death encounter similar to drug induced hallucinations |
| stages of near-death experiences | intense feelings of peace, joy, and calm feel as if departing body/looking down being in a tunnel, moving through dark space seeing bright, comforting light, peaceful landscapes seeing dead relatives, life flash before eyes |
| physiological explanation for near-death experiences | brain flooded with endorphins to ease pain activation of angular gyrus the hallucinogen DMT produces similar effects |
| angular gyrus | boundary between visual, auditory, vestibular(body awareness in space) stimulation causes people to experience floating above their bodies watching themselves |
| sensation | a process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy |
| perception | a process of organizing and interpreting sensory information |
| bottom-up processing | the interpretation of sensory information is unaffected by knowledge and expectations info is processed until a 'match' in long-term memory is found |
| top-down processing | sensory information is interpreted differently depending on knowledge and expectations |
| Stroop effect | sensation at odds with perception when looking at words, you see its color and meaning experience tells you word meaning is more important than ink color interference when you pay attention to only the ink color, making you slow down |
| 3 basic principles of sensation and perception | 1. not a 1-1 correspondence between physical and psychological reality 2. sensation and perception are active processes 3. sensation and perception are adaptive (we adjust/get used to it- diminished sensitivity with constant stimulation) |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity with constant stimulation |
| transduction | sensory receptors translate physical stimulation into neural signals |
| common features of sensory systems | transduction, sensitive to change in stimulation, threshold |
| threshold | each system has a minimum amount of energy required to activate the system |
| absolute threshold | minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus defined as the stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time |
| subliminal stimuli | detectable less than 50% of the time |
| difference threshold | minimum difference between 2 stimuli that a subject can detect 50% of the time |
| weber's law | to perceive a difference between 2 stimuli, they must differ by a constant proportion light intensity: 8% weight: 2% tone frequency: 0.3% |
| vision accommodation | change in shape of lens focus on near objects |
| retina | inner surface of eye light sensitive contains rods and cones |
| receptor cells | cones and rods |
| cones | near center of retina on the fovea fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions |
| fovea | area of central focus |
| rods | peripheral of the retina detect black, white, and grey twilight or low light |
| blind spot | no receptor cells located there not detected because brain fills it in |
| trichromatic theory | color vision, 3 color theory 3 different retinal color receptors: red, green, blue |
| opponent- process theory | 3 types of color opponent cells: black-white, red-green, blue-yellow if one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited these cells explain: after images and color deficiency |
| after images | visual illusion in which retinal impressions persist after the removal of a stimulus fatigued cells can no longer inhibit, so other color comes through |
| color deficient | red + green = yellow (light color mixing) red and green opponent cells are defective, so can't detect those colors, but yellow opponent cells work so you can see it |
| how color vision works | opponent cells located in retina and thalamus color vision is based on both the trichromatic and opponent process theory |
| tetrachromats | four types of cones (red, green, blue, plus orange) see 10 colors in rainbow instead of 7 100x more colors seen |
| audition | when sound waves interact with the structures of the ear 20,000 - Hz highest frequency we can hear 20 Hz - lowest frequency we can hear |
| audition theories | place theory, frequency theory, volley theory |
| place theory | pitch is linked with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated works at high frequencies (5000-20,000 Hz) |
| frequency theory | the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone works at low frequencies <100 Hz |
| volley theory | firing in sequence sets of neurons fire at highest rate, slightly out of sync 100-5000 Hz the 'volley' adds up to overall Hz |
| air conduction | sound travels to sensory receptors via air |
| bone conduction | sound travels to sensory receptors via bone |
| why do we sound different on tape than in person | hearing self- air and bone conduction hearing others- only air conduction |
| taste sensations | sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami/savory |
| structures involved in taste | papillae, taste buds, receptor cells |
| papillae | tiny bumps on tongue contain taste buds/receptors for taste 10,000 taste buds on tongue (each can recognize all 5 tastes) receptor cells for taste buds also located on roof of mouth, throat, and esophagus |
| taste sensitivity | based on number of papillae more papillae = more taste buds = greater sensitivity |
| types of tasters | based on number of papillae/taste sensitivity nontaster: <15 papillae normal taster: 15-30 papillae supertaster: >30 papillae (6x as many taste buds) with age, sensitivity decreases |
| smell | about 1000 different types of olfactory receptor cells detects 10,000 different odors connected to the limbic system (memory, emotion, stress response) |
| sensory interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another ex: smell and taste |
| kinesthesis | the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts sensors in the joints and muscles send signals that coordinate with signals from skin, eyes, and ears |
| equilibrium (vestibular sense) | the sense of body movement and position relative to gravity includes sense of balance |
| perceptual groupings | proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, connectedness |
| proximity grouping | group nearby figures together ex: a cluster |
| similarity grouping | group figures together that are similar ex: triangles and circles |
| continuity grouping | perceive continuous patterns ex: 2 types of lines, squiggly and straight |
| closure grouping | fill in gaps ex: dotted line forming a triangle |
| connectedness grouping | spots and lines are seen as a unit when connected ex: dumbbell shape |
| binocular cues | cues that involve comparing images from both eyes |
| retinal disparity | images from eyes differ (superimposed when both eyes are open) the closer the object, the larger the disparity |
| convergence | neuromuscular cue two eyes move inward for near objects |
| depth perception | 3D world is seen with 2D sensory images using retinal disparity by combining different images to make 3D |
| monocular cues | cues to depth requiring only one eye: interposition, relative size, linear perspective, relative height, texture gradient |
| interposition | closer object blocks distant object |
| relative size | smaller image is more distant |
| linear perspective | parallel lines converge with distance |
| relative height | the object closer to the horizon is perceived as farther away |
| texture gradient | change from coarse to smooth texture indicates increasing distance |
| perceptual set | a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another ex: 12, 13, 14 or A, B, C |
| extrasensory perception (ESP) | claim that perception can occur without sensory imput |
| examples of extrasensory perception | telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis |
| telepathy | mind to mind communication |
| clairvoyance | perceive remote current events |
| precognition | perceive future events |
| psychokinesis | direct mental influence over physical objects |
| parapsychologists | study paranormal phenomena beyond the scope of normal scientific understanding not been reproduced in research or experiments |
| learning | an enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience distinct from drugs, fatigue, illness, maturation/biological dev. |
| components of classical conditioning | unconditioned stimulus (US), unconditioned response (UR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR) |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | stimulus that automatically and naturally triggers a response ex: dog treat |
| unconditioned response (UR) | unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus ex: dog drools after biscuit is placed in its mouth |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response ex: a bell |
| conditioned response (CR) | learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus ex: dog drools before biscuit placed in its mouth |
| Garcia effect | conditioned taste aversion if a flavor is followed by illness, animals will not consume the flavor in the future |
| stimulus generalization | if a response is conditioned to one stimulus, the organism may also respond to a similar stimulus |
| stimulus descrimination | occurs when original CS predicts CR, but similar stimuli don't |
| extinction | CS no longer triggers CR occurs because the CR ceases to predict the US something learned is unlearned |
| spontaneous recovery | reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR temporary, small return of CR, may be less severe shows extinction is not forgetting |
| forward conditioning | fastest and strongest responses: CS precedes US best conditioning ex: bell then food |
| backward conditioning | slowest and weakest responses US precedes CS worst conditioning ex: food then bell |
| simultaneous conditioning | CS and US at the same time ex: bell and food at the same time |
| factors that might impact the speed of acquisition | number of pairings, strength of CS (should be strong and distinctive, like a loud bell), timing of stimulus presentation (hard to condition after a 2 sec delay) |
| operant conditioning | type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment |
| positive reinforcement | process by which presentation of a stimulus after a response makes the response more likely to occur in the future ex: giving a prize or treat |
| negative reinforcement | termination of a bad event that makes a behavior more likely to occur in the future ex: taking away something painful/a punishment |
| escape learning | learn to escape an ongoing aversive situation ex: learning that giving lunch money will end bullying temporarily |
| avoidance learning | a response prevents a potentially bad event from occurring ex: giving lunch money before bullied to prevent bullying from happening |
| positive punishment | presentation of a bad stimulus that decreases the likelihood a response will occur ex: inflicting pain |
| negative reinforcement | removal of something positive that decreases the likelihood that a response will occur ex: taking away a toy or privilege |
| schedules of reinforcement | continuous and partial reinforcement |
| continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired outcome each time it occurs learning occurs rapidly extinction occurs rapidly |
| partial reinfocement | reinforcing a response only part of the time results in slower acquisition greater resistance to extinction |
| types of partial reinforcement | interval and ratio reinforcement |
| types of interval reinforcement | fixed and variable reinforcement |
| types of ratio reinforcement | fixed and variable reinforcement |
| fixed ratio (FR) | reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses faster you respond, the more rewards you get very high rate of responding ex: getting paid per product made quick extinction |
| variable ratio (VR) | reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses ex: slot machines very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability |
| fixed interval (FI) | reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near |
| variable interval (VI) | reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals produces slow steady responding ex: pop quiz, more consistent studying |
| shaping | reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal |
| instinctual drift | tendency of an animal to perform an instinctual response instead of the learned response |
| superstitious behavior | incorrect association between a behavior and a consequence |
| real world examples of operant conditioning | parenting, the token economy, and superstitious behavior |
| the token economy | small rewards can be exchanged for larger ones ex: small stickers to toys use fading to make it harder to extinguish |
| fading | gradually decrease the frequency of reinforcements shifts the reinforcement schedule from continuous to partial |
| observational learning | learning by observing and imitating others people tend to imitate people they admire, people rewarded for their actions, people they want to be like/prestigious people can learn prosocial and antisocial behaviors |
| prosocial behaviors | helpful behaviors |
| cognition | mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information |
| cognitive psychology | the study of processing, understanding, and communicating information, concept formation, problem solving, decision making, logical and illogical thinking, and judgement formation |
| concept | mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people |
| prototype | the 'best' example of a category matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category |
| schema | a knowledge structure that organizes and represents information includes the relations among objects, relevant events, actions, and sequences of actions influence attention, memory, and interpretation of information |
| incubation | rest period during problem solving in which one hopes the solution is forming in their head ex: hoping a test answer will come to you |
| algorithm | methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem |
| heuristic | a shortcut, step-saving strategy or principle which generates a solution quickly, but possibly in error usually speedier than algorithms for people more error prone than algorithms sometimes unaware of using them |
| representativeness heuristic | judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well match prototypes may lead to ignoring other relevant information most overuse representativeness probably that an event will occur or fall into a certain category |
| Gambler's fallacy | belief that if a particular outcome has not occurred for a while its turn has come truly random events don't take turns |
| overconfidence phenomenon | tendency to be more confident than correct tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgements |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory vivid memories assumed to be more common |
| insight | sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem contrasts with strategy-based solutions insight occurs more often for participants who sleep on it 'aha' experience |
| fixation | tendency to approach a problem in a particular way inability to take a new perspective |
| functional fixedness | tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions |
| confirmation bias | tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions |
| framing | the way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgements |
| belief perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| language universals | fundamental properties of all languages - structured to allow creative usage - interpersonal - meaningful and referential (avoid ambiguity) |
| pragmatics | principles of conversation |
| imaginal thought | conscious or unconscious manipulation of mental images able to visualize or not |
| factors that influence imaginal thought | previous experience, motivation, timing/freshness of memory, visual character of an object (more detailed is harder), practice |
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