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Cogsci Exam #3
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Cognitive psychology | the scientific study of cognition or our mental processes |
| How language contribute to study of mind | Communication Express what’s going on w/ one’s self Humans are the only ones who can use words that make up language Frame thoughts Explains the internal stuff |
| Mental representations → | language actual window into mental processes |
| To understand the mind → | language is essential - Provide the window into cognition - Provides insights into internal workings of the mind (express what’s happening in the mind- internal stuff) |
| Language “labels” | used to explain our mental representations + understand others mental representations |
| Field of language studies syntax + semantics | provide insight into thinking, decision making, etc |
| syntax | sentence strucuture |
| semantics | meaning behind words |
| recursive relationship between language + the mind | Language is created by the mind → gets expressed → returns to the mind to be understood |
| Broca's aphasia | broken grammar/ speech |
| Vernicese aphasia | word salad w/ no structure/ this relationship is broken/ mix up of words |
| Formal Study of Language (2 types) | 1. Linguistics 2. Psycholinguistics |
| Linguistics | study of language for its structure + characteristics - Language → set of all acceptable (grammatical) sentences |
| Psycholinguistics | study of language as its learned + used - Language → shared symbolic system for communication - Language evolves/ always evolving |
| Basic Units of Language (1) | Phoneme= smallest unit of sound in a language - 44 phonemes for English (from 26 letters) - 9 of the phonemes are used for half of our words Diagraph |
| Basic Units of Language (2) | Phonology= study of combination of phonemes in a language (how they can combine) - EX: for “ough” → how many diff pronunciation (cough, through, tough, dough, ought, thought) |
| Basic Units of Language (3) | Morpheme= smallest unit of meaning |
| Grammatical morphemes | prefixes (re- means again) + suffixes (- ed means in the past) + articles (the) + conjunctions (and- connect words) + prepositions (of) |
| Content morphemes | actual words that cannot be reduced any further + still carry meaning (EX: dog) |
| Basic Units of Language (4) | Morphology= study of the combination of morphemes - EX: talked (ed- past) (talk- content) → 2 morphemes |
| Basic Units of Language (5) | Phrases= combination of groups of words - Combination of morphemes |
| Basic Units of Language (6) | Sentences= combination of phrases - Combine sentences= paragraphs - Combine paragraphs= book - Combine books= triology |
| Universal of Lang (1) | Symbolic= represented by symbols (arbitrary- symbols could be anything) - Symbols are inherently EMPTY (we give meaning to them) |
| Universal of Lang (2) | Semanticity= symbols become meaningful through use |
| Universal of Lang (3) | Grammar (syntax)= set of rules to produce all acceptable (grammatical) sentences |
| Prescriptive rules | need to do it this way (how we ought to speak + write) → linguist |
| Descriptive rules | governing actual language use → psycholinguist |
| Generative | finite (preestablished) set of symbols (26 letters of alphabet)/ rules that can generate an infinite number of sentences/ ideas (always produce something new from born til death) |
| Communicative | used to communicate/ share thoughts/ ideas (mental representations) → Language provides the labels of these mental representations |
| Skinner | Learning a language → acquiring a set of behavioral dispositions (set of ways to behave) --> through OC |
| Chomsky | Lang= too complex for OC to explain Lang= can’t be conditioned → through childhood minimal explicit language (not sat down and explicitly taught your language) |
| Language is stimulus-independent | don’t need a stimulus (can say whatever pops into your head) → independent of the stimulus asked |
| Language is historically unbound | not tied to anything/ what is said is NOT determined by history of reinforcement |
| Linguistic behaviors cannot be controlled | Any word, sentence, etc is POSSIBLE + understand it without ever hearing it before |
| Language module= | INNATE cognitive system - Innate linguistic knowledge (rules + principles of language) |
| Innate knowledge of grammar | auxiliary verb movement (anything that is not an action verb/ in english it can move in a sentence) → - EX: Jacob is hungry today → sentence: Is Jacob hungry today? |
| H1 (hypothesis) | find the first occurrence of “is” in the sentence and move it to the front → can only swap the subject and the auxiliary verb |
| H2 (hypothesis) | find the first occurrence of is following NP (noun phrase) and move it to the front |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 1 | Species specific → only humans have language - Animals have complicated systems of communication, but not language bc not generative |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 2 | Ease + Speed of language acquisition (fast) - Acquiring complex grammatical skills without direct teaching → critical period of learning |
| Mere exposure | simply learned/ induce by listening/ exposed to language all the time without being taught |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 3 | Uniformity - Children acquire language through the SAME stages at approx. the SAME time → must be innately determined |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 4 | Neurological separation - Diff brain areas/ circuits for language vs. non-language information - Certain brain areas will light up during lang tasks/ light up during non-lang tasks |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 5 | Language universals - Similarities across languages; languages are “essentially identical” - Argue language has different rules/ structures= so they are all unique/ can’t be identical |
| Arguments for Language Innateness 6 | Poverty (lacking) of the stimulus argument - Most powerful argument for UG - Children could not have acquired lang from the noisy, incomplete input available → however, passive observation still can learn lang |
| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 1 | Against “language universals” → too diverse; 5000-8000 languages - Universals cannot be independent of human culture → many cultures have diff labels for things (too diverse) |
| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 2 | Against “poverty of stimuli proposal” - Considerable evidence parents DO provide constant feedback → may not explicitly say why, but extract rules implicitly + extract those rules on one’s own |
| Arguments Against Universal Grammar 3 | Against “innateness” of UG through genes/ natural selection - Too short a time frame → evolution is slow process for enviro to select things for species to move forward |
| Semantics | formal study of meaning of words, sentences, higher level discourse |
| Circular definition | try to define meaning, find self running in a circle - EX: Meaning: something that is signified |
| Words used to define words | Symbols that are inherently empty |
| Words will change meaning in context | Words mean diff things in various complex contexts - EX: the diamond cut the glass (sharp) vs. the diamond reflected the sun (shiny) |
| The meaning of individual words does NOT equal the meaning of the overall larger sentence | Currently no good theory of grammar= no good theory of semantics - EX: The cop raised his hand, and the car stopped |
| Language & Thoughts | Language will influence our thinking Derive meaning from non-lingusitc cues (facial expressions) |
| Thought | is a single product of thinking --> conceived in the mind |
| Lexicalizaed | form, express, accept as (a word) in vocab of lang |
| Grammaticalized | words can be stringed together by grammar (conjugation of the verb) |
| Eventdentially | grammatical parts give you evidence → tell u what’s going on - Words can capture meaning of whole description |
| Mentalese | language of thought and diff from spoken/ written language that comes out on paper/ more then the labels |
| Language FORMS ideas | new concepts come into existence bc of language |
| Lingusitic Relativity Hypothesis (Sapir Whorf Hypothesis) | 1. Weaker Form → language shapes or influences our thoughts 2. Stronger Form → language determines thoughts |
| Weaker form (1) | → framing of a question will get the better otucome/ influence the decision Power of words → EX: belief of “he” is generic → it isn’t |
| Stronger form (1) | → language determines our perception of the world/ the language limits this perception (determine perception of the world) → language determines reality |
| Weaker form (2) | linguistic relativity → language does NOT determine reality → OBJECTIVE reality exists → language only shapes/ influences how we perceive the world |
| linguistic relativity | (Sapir)- proposes that language only influences thoughts/ perception of reality |
| Stronger form (2) | linguistic determinism → reality is perceived through the medium of language → SUBJECTIVE realities |
| linguistic determinism | language determines thoughts/ will determine reality |
| Perception | creating an internal mental representation of the external world - allows us to create mental representations |
| Field of sensation + perception | studied by physics |
| Visual Perception of Objects | 1. Don’t see things that are THERE 2. See things are NOT there 3. See things that are IMPOSSIBLE or CANNOT BE 4. See things that are AMBIGUOUS |
| Feature | a basic property of an object |
| Analysis of features | Visual neurons → feature detectors (Hubel & Wiesel) - bar detectors - other specialized cells= edges, curves, color, size, shape, direction of movement - Perception of visual field is more than just visual features |
| Visual Segregation | beyond analysis of stimuli - Grouping + organizing overall visual scene - spatial relationships amongst objects |
| Gestalt psychology | Whole is greater than the sum of its parts - Use Gestalt laws to organize visual info (proximity, similarity, good continuation, closure) - figure / ground separation → separating figure from ground |
| Extracting Depth for 3D Representation of World | Constructing a 3D representation of the world - Depth cues used to extract/ construct depth - Convergence |
| Convergence | (sensation of) eye converging on an object |
| Retinal disparity (stereopsis) | External image falls on doff parts of the retina Creating different retinal images; superimposed in the occipital lobe |
| Interposition | closer objects blocks out farther object |
| Linear perspective | parallel lines appear to converge in distance |
| Texture gradient | roughness of a surface; closer surface stands out |
| Object Recognition | 3D objects composed of “geons” Geometric ions → basic building blocks of all objects - geons formed from features= lines, angles, curves |
| Geons have 3 properties | 1. high distinctiveness 2. view invariance 3. resistance to visual "noise" |
| High distinctiveness | can always tell one geon from another |
| View invariance | can be identified from different angles/ rotation |
| Resistance to visual “noise” | can be identified when incomplete - Visual noise= picture may not be finished, but can still be recognized |
| Face Recognition (2 systems) | 1. Part-based system 2. Holistic configurational system |
| Part-based system | specalizing in the recognition if an object’s parts (features/ geons) (eyes, nose, ears, eyebrows → no problem recognizing) |
| Holistic configurational system | specalizing in structural relationships amongst individual features - Spatial more hard recognizing bc everything in specific images are scrambled |
| Face recognition relies on both | The fusaform face area of temporal lobe More difficult to detect feature when upside down |
| Bottom-up processing | recognition is achieved by analyzing the stimulus/ input only - used for NEW experiences |
| Top-down processing | recognition is guided/ sped by stored knowledge → used AFTER experience → after experiencing something → it does it |
| Form perception | process of perceiving basic shape/ size of an object |
| Object recognition | process of identifying what the object is |
| Ataxia | inability to reach out/ grab objects - Damage to parietal lobe |
| Akinetopsia | inability to perceive motion - Series of snapshots - Damage to temporal-parietal cortices |
| Agnosia | inability to recognize objects - Damage to temporal lobe |
| Prosopagnosia | inability to recognize faces - Can recognize objects - Damage to fusaform face area of temporal lobe |
| Neglect syndrome | person ignores half of the visual word - Damage to parietal lobe |
| Illusions | perception of object conflicts w/ actual physical dimensions - Conflicts between bottom-up + top-down processes - Illusions of shape, size, color, brightness, motion |
| Attention | Concentration of mental effort on sensory events (from environment) + mental events |
| Complex tasks | acquire a lot of attention, but can become automatic → autotization → due to practice or repeition → EX: driving or reading |
| Selective Attention | There is only so much that can be attended to - select things to pay attention to, but miss the other things |
| Inattention blindness | the failure to notice a fully visible stimulus right in the visual scene - Primary task captures your attention → another OBVIOUS object is NOT noticed |
| Change blindness | failure to detect changes in the visual scene because of some disruptions or after a disruption |
| Auvray & O'Regan (2003) | Green pepper video w/ coin study --> inattention blindness |
| Simon & Chabris (1999) | Gorilla + basketball video- 15 passes/ gorilla passes by through circle - 50% subjects missed gorilla --> inattention blindness |
| Simons (2010) | Monkey business- 16 passes (white + black shirts), gorilla passes through, curtains change color, player leaves --> inattention blindness --> lower % when expecting gorilla to see anything else |
| Advertisment for Mayor Office in London | Who-dun-it (21 things changed) --> change blindess |
| Attention is a resource w/ limited capacity | finite “pool” of attention → focuses across all things/ use attention for multiple things |
| Attention is distributed across different activities | Division of attention vs. selection → divide attention up to devote attention elsewhere |
| Components of Kahneman’s Model | 1. Available capacity 2. Allocation policy 3. Enduring dispositions 4. Momentary intentions 5. Possible Activities 6. Evaluation of demands on capacity |
| Available Capacity | pool of available attention - Filled by level of arousal → physiological activation - moderate arousal= best → too low (tired) or too high (anxious) |
| Miscellaneous determinants | affect capacity → feed into it or decrease it - EX: enough sleep= increase attention, not enough sleep= decrease attention |
| Miscellaneous manifestations | draw away capacity → draining ONLY - Eats up your attention/ drains pool of attention - EX: finger tapping, fidgeting, etc. |
| Allocation Policy | executive/ decision maker - Determines division of attention over diff tasks - YOU determine where to divide attention, but don’t decide everything |
| Enduring Dispositions | automatic influences requiring attention - Something captures your attention instantly/ can’t ignore it - EX: sudden movement or new event |
| Momentary Intentions | conscious decision to attend to something - Specific goal(s) of the moment --> it is an impulse that pops in |
| Possible Activities | actual division of attention over tasks - Leads to diff responses - EX: when someone is explaining something, divert attention to hand gestures, which leads to possible activities while having attention on others things |
| Evaluation of Demands on Capacity | progress of activities? - EX: study for exam, expertise, automatic vs controlled processing, etc |
| Memory | cognitive processes of encoding, storage, retrieval of information - creation of mental representation → we store the memory to process it → but store those mental representations |
| 3 memory processes | 1. encoding 2. storage 3. retrieval |
| Encoding | how does info get in? --> get it through senses, get in STM by attention |
| Storage | maintaining the information → capacity, duration, representation |
| Capacity | how much can be held |
| Duration | how long can it last |
| Representation | formed of stored memory |
| Retrieval | getting information out |
| Atkinson & Shiffrin Model (1968) | Proposed that there are 3 memory sub-systems that are arranged in stages Also known as a mulit-store model Uses information process approach |
| Iconic memory | associated w/ visual system - duration= 0.5-1 sec |
| Echoic memory | associated w/ auditory system - duration= 1.5- 5 sec |
| interference | competition of past vs. current information |
| retroactive interference | current info what is being learned now interfers with what have been learned in the past |
| proactive interference | old info interfers w/ new info |
| AVOID interferences (spacing effect) | NOT cram all info at once/ divide and conquer |
| Available | info in LTM is there |
| Accessible | can you get it |
| Retriveal cue | a reminder of the info (words, images, objects, situations) |
Created by:
lils33
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