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Psych Exam #2
Chapters 7-12
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| influences on physical growth | heredity, hormones, nutrition, illness, injury |
| lateralization | process in which certain functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than the other |
| cerebellum | aids in balance and control of body movement |
| reticular formation | maintains alertness and consciousness |
| hippocampus | memory |
| preoperational stage of cognitive development | second stage of Piaget's theory (2-7 years), have better ability to use symbols |
| egocentrism | inability to distinguish between one's perspective and someone else's perspective |
| animism | belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities |
| centration | focusing attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others |
| sociocultural perspective (Vygotsky) | children advance when working with someone more skilled |
| contributions to sociocultural perspective | zone of proximal development, scaffolding, private speech |
| zone of proximal development | difference between what one can do with assistance and what one can do alone |
| scaffolding | teacher matches assistance to learner's needs |
| private speech | comments used to regulate own behavior |
| word learning | slow at 12 months, "naming explosion" by 18 months |
| beyond telegraphic speech | by 2 years old, most children produce longer sentences |
| grammatical morphemes | minimal unit of meaning |
| child-centered programs | learning takes place through play (Montessori) |
| academic programs | teachers structure children's learning of academic skills through formal lessons |
| Head Start | provides children with 1-2 years of preschool before attending elementary school |
| self-concept | set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual |
| self-concept of preschoolers | physical characteristics, preferences, possessions, competencies |
| friendship of preschoolers | mutual liking and sharing common interests |
| parallel play | play alone but interested in what others are doing |
| growing pains | common stiffness and aches in the legs |
| obesity | body weight that is more than 20% above the average for a person of a given age and height |
| overweight children often have: | low self-esteem, are at risk for medical problems |
| contributors to childhood obesity | heredity (basal metabolic rate), environment, parental influence |
| common illness during middle childhood | asthma - contributing factors are heredity and environmental factors |
| accidents | increase during this period due to an increased independence |
| learning disabilities are characterized by: | difficulty mastering an academic subject, normal intelligence, not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance |
| ADHD | attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity |
| risk factors for ADHD | heredity, prenatal exposure to drugs and alcohol |
| treatments for ADHD | drug and behavior therapy |
| dyslexia | characterized by problems such as letter reversals, slow reading, and reduced comprehension |
| potential causes of dyslexia | phonological processing, heredity, neurological problems |
| Piaget's third stage | concrete operational stage - ages 7-11, begin to use strategies and rules (mental operations) |
| rehearsal | repeating the information to oneself |
| organization | structure material so that related information is placed together |
| elaboration | embellish information to make it more memorable |
| foundations of reading | emergent literacy, learning letters, sensitivity to language |
| emergent literacy | knowledge about literacy that children acquire before learning to read |
| phonological awareness | ability to hear the distinctive sounds of letters |
| influences on reading achievement | phonological awareness, environment, socioeconomic status |
| environment (influence on reading achievement) | amount read to as a child |
| socioeconomic status | lower SES children are more likely to have difficulty in reading |
| methods of reading instruction | phonics, whole-word, whole-language |
| phonics | focuses on letter names, then letter sounds, then syllables and words (most successful) |
| whole-word | recognize whole words on sight |
| whole-language | immerses child in language |
| intelligence | ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experiences |
| WISC | Wechsler-Intelligence Scale for Children - tests verbal ability and performance |
| fluid intelligence | intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory |
| crystallized intelligence | accumulated knowledge |
| intellectual disability | substantially below-average intelligence |
| profound intellectual disability | IQ around 20 - custodial |
| severe intellectual disability | IQ 20-35 - custodial |
| moderate intellectual disability | IQ 35-50 - trainable (can do some tasks themselves, similar to that of a 7-8 year old) |
| mild intellectual disability | IQ 50-70 - educable (can go to school, learn, and master some academic skills at a longer pace and lead independent lives) |
| giftedness | individuals with IQ scores of 130 or higher |
| modern definitions of giftedness | includes people who are exceptionally gifted in specific areas, not just necessarily IQ |
| determinants of intelligence | heredity, environment (home, historical changes in IQ scores, intervention programs) |
| self-concept in middle childhood includes | emotional tendencies, membership in social groups, social comparisons |
| social comparisons | evaluation of one's behavior, abilities, and expertise by comparing them to those of others |
| self-esteem | refers to a person's judgment and feelings about his or her own worth |
| changes in level of self-esteem | highest during preschool years and drops at beginning of high school years |
| sources of self-esteem | child's competence in domains that are important to them, parents, peers - feel good if peers think highly of you |
| preconventional | punishment and rewards |
| conventional | rules and approval of others |
| postconventional | abstract principles |
| stages of friendship | base friendship on others' behavior, base friendship on trust, base friendship on psychological closeness |
| peer acceptance | refers to likeability |
| likeability | the extent to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner |
| categories of peer acceptance | popular children (well liked), rejected children (disliked - most problematic), controversial children (liked and disliked), neglected children (ignored - neither liked/disliked) |
| rejected children | more likely to experience poor school performance, depression, and anti-social behavior |
| gender self-segregation | peer group interactions in middle childhood are gender-segregated because of differences in interests, activities, and patterns of interactions |
| sibling rivalry | when siblings compete or quarrel with one another - increases in middle childhood |
| impact of divorce | conduct, social achievement, relationship with parents |
| children of divorce are more likely to | experience conflict in their own marriages, have negative attitudes toward marriage, get divorced themselves |
| changes in family life that affect children | loss of parental role model, economic hardship, exposure to conflict |
| blended families | consists of parent, stepparent, and children |
| anorexia nervosa | marked by refusal to eat and an irrational fear of being overweight |
| bulimia nervosa | alternate between binge eating and purging |
| risk factors for eating disorders | heredity, overly concerned about body and weight |
| prefrontal cortex | area of brain that allows people to think, evaluate, and make complex judgments |
| 4th stage of Piaget's theory | formal operations stage - 11-15 years old: can think hypothetically and reason deductively |
| adolescent egocentrism | self-absorption |
| imaginary audience | belief that others are constantly watching |
| personal fable | belief that experiences and feelings are unique |
| school performance | grade inflation - grades awarded to high school students have shifted upwards |
| dropping out of school | boys have higher dropout rate, have lower employment rates than high school graduates |
| reasons for use of drugs and alcohol | effects of using them, escape from everyday life, thrill-seeking, enhance academic performance |
| binge drinking | male: 5 or more drinks in a 2 hour period female: 4 or more drinks in a 2 hour period |
| problems with binge drinking | can lead to alcoholism, long term consequences (organ failure, damaged tissue), make poor decisions, death |
| STIs | sexually transmitted infections - infection spread through sexual contact (most severe = AIDS, most common = HPV) |
| self-concept for adolescence includes | attitudes, personality traits, situation specific and role-specific personality traits/behaviors |
| diffusion (identity development) | not committed to an identity and not searching |
| foreclosure (identity development) | committed to an identity without searching first |
| moratorium (identity development) | not committed to an identity but exploring options |
| achievement (identity development) | have chosen an identity after a period of searching |
| phases of identity development | most adolescents are in diffusion or foreclosure and do not reach achievement status for all aspects of identity at the same time |
| depression | involves feeling sad, frustrated, hopeless about life |
| factors affecting depression | heredity and biology, serious loss, disappointment, or failure, and gender |
| suicide | 3rd leading cause of death in the US |
| factors affecting suicide | gender, depression, family conflict, relationship difficulties, exposure to suicides of others |
| generation gap | divide between parents and children in attitudes and values |
| relationships with peers | peers provide information about what roles and behavior are most acceptable by serving as a reference group |
| reference groups | groups of people with whom one compares oneself |
| cliques | groups of 4-6 kids who are friends, have similar interests, and spend a lot of time together |
| crowds | larger mixed-sex groups; often known by names |
| peer pressure | influence one's peers to conform to their behavior and attitudes (can be positive or negative) |
| romantic relationships | younger: companionship older: trust and support |
| heterosexuality |
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pavegliok
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