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PSY201
Exam-review1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Psychology | is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
| Pseudopsychologies | are unreliable approaches that do not use the scientific method Examples of pseudopsychologies include: Astrology: system that tries to relate personality to the movement of the stars Palmistry: idea that reading a person’s character from the lines on |
| Goals of Psychology | Description of behavior using careful observations Explanation involves identifying the cause(s) of behavior Prediction allows for specification of the conditions under which a behavior will occur or not Psychological knowledge can be used to assist ch |
| There are Two forms of psychological research: | Basic research seeks answers for theoretical questions E.g. How is hunger controlled by the brain? Can be done in the lab ‘bench research’ Applied research seeks answers for specific application problems E.g. Organizational psychology studies leaders |
| Areas of Psychology | Clinical Educational School Industrial/organiz-ational Developmental Social Comparative Neuropsychology Health psychology Cognitive |
| The Experiment | An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aims to confirm a hypothesis |
| Hypothesis | refers to a statement of cause and effect: “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression” “Exposure to marijuana increases appetite” |
| To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: | Cause: Independent variable (IV) Marijuana: Plain cigarette versus cigarette containing 5 mg of THC (the active ingredient in marijuana) Effect: Dependent variable (DV) Appetite: Grams of ice cream consumed in 1 hour The experimenter manipulates the |
| Research Issues | Experimental Group Control Group Experimenter Bias Double-Blind Study Placebo Random Assignment |
| Naturalistic observation | refers to the systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat Jane Goodall observing apes in the wild |
| Surveys | are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors Asking persons at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues |
| case study | is an in-depth study of a single person Freud used the case study method to probe anxiety |
| Correlational Research | The correlation technique indicates the degree of association between 2 variables Correlations vary in direction: Positive association: Negative association: No relation |
| Biological Research | sections Lesions Case studieDiss Electrical recording Electrical stimulation Split-brain surgery CT scan PET scan MRI scan fMRI scan |
| Informed consent | is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant |
| Deception | involving the subjects must be justified |
| Confidentiality | of study information must be maintained |
| Debriefing | refers to explaining the research process to the subjects at the end of the study |
| Early Pioneers of Psychology | Experimental Psychology – (1870’s – 1880’s) Wilhelm Wundt – founder of experimental psychology Established first psychology laboratory in Germany Interested in studying the thought processes |
| Early Pioneers in Psychology | Structuralism 1890’s Edward Titchener, founder, one of Wundt’s followers Brought study to U.S. Studied thought processes, conscious mind |
| Early Pioneers in Psychology | Functionalism 1890’s William James, James Dewey Investigated “functions” or purposes of behavior Continued to study the conscious mind |
| Modern Psychology Views | Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud, Austrian Physician Late 1800’s, early 1900’s Study of the unconscious mind Study of dreams; unconscious material that is brought to surface by counselor |
| Modern Psychology Views | Behaviorism Early 1900’s John Watson, B.F. Skinner Emphasize observable behaviors, overt behaviors Measure, scientifically study these behaviors |
| Modern Psychology Views | Gestalt Psychology Founded by Max Wertheimer Early 1900’s Believed in the importance of mental activities Insisted that experience be studied as a “whole” |
| Neurons | cell that receives signals from other neurons or sense organs, processes these signals, and sends the signals to other neurons, muscles, or bodily organs |
| There are Three types: | 1.Sensory neurons – a neuron that responds to input from sense organs 2.Motor neurons – a neuron that sends signals to muscles to control movement 3.Interneuron – a neuron that is connected to other neurons (found in the brain) |
| Glial cells | cell that fills the gaps between neurons |
| Neurons are composed of: | Dendrites: receive information and pass it to cell body Cell Body: summarizes information Axon: extends from cell body, carries electrical potential, sends a chemical message to adjacent neurons |
| Resting Potential | Neurons are not always firing. When at rest they maintain a negative charge which is called the resting potential. |
| During resting potential: | Sodium ions are concentrated on the outside of the axon membrane. + Potassium ions are concentrated on the inside of the axon membrane. + Chloride and Anion ions are concentrated inside the cell. (Both are negatively charged) Ion channels are closed. |
| Action Potential | occurs when the membrane potential becomes positive |
| When is Resting Potential restored? | Resting Potential is restored when other channels open, allowing potassium ions to re-enter the axon and sodium ions to exit the axon |
| Myelin | is a fatty, waxy substance coating the axon of some neurons. |
| Myelin functions: | Speeds neurotransmission Insulates neurons from each other Makes neurotransmission more efficient |
| synapse | is the junction between an axon terminal and an adjacent dendrite or cell body. |
| Neurotransmitter (NT) Molecules | are released from the axon terminal into the synapse when the action potential arrives at the axon terminal. |
| Synaptic Cleft | the gap between the axon of one neuron and the membrane of another, across which communication occurs |
| Receptor | a site on the dendrite or the cell body where the messenger molecule attaches itself |
| Serotonin | affects mood, sleep, appetite |
| Acetylcholine | affects muscle action, cognitive functioning, memory |
| Norepinephrine | affects learning, memory, dreaming, emotion |
| Epinephrine | affects emotional arousal and memory storage |
| GABA | inhibitory actions in the CNS |
| Endorphins | elevate mood, reduce pain, affect memory |
| Psychoactive drugs | affect the nervous system to alter mood, emotion, and thought |
| Psychoactive drugs act by: | Increasing or decreasing release of neurotransmitters Stimulating or blocking receptor sites |
| Agonists Psychoactive drugs | enhance neurotransmitter function |
| Antagonist Psychoactive drugs | block neurotransmitter function SSRI – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor |
| Central Nervous System (CNS) | is composed of the brain and spinal cord Spinal cord connects the brain with the PNS Spinal cord is comprised of cell bodies and axons that carry messages Afferent: toward the brain (sensory function) Efferent: away from the brain (motor function) |
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) | includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord Somatic NS carries sensory messages to brain and motor commands to the muscles Autonomic NS regulates automatic body functions (such as heart rate, breathing) Sympathetic: “Fight or Flight” (respo |
| Meninges (brain) | 3 protective layered membranes that cover the brain; first thing you would see under the skull |
| Cerebral Hemisphere (brain) | left or right half of the brain |
| Corpus Callosum (brain) | band of nerve fibers that connect the 2 halves of the brain |
| Cerebral Cortex (brain) | the pinkish gray surface of the brain where most mental processes take place |
| Sulcus (brain) | a crease in the cerebral cortex |
| Cortex is divided into lobes | Frontal: Self-awareness, planning, voluntary movement, emotional control, speech, working memory Parietal: Body sensations, motor control Occipital: Vision Temporal: Hearing, language comprehension |
| Somatosensory Strip | registers sensation on the body and is organized by the body |
| Motor Strip | controls fine movements and is organized by body part |
| Brainstem | is a primitive portion of brain |
| Pons: | involved in respiration, sleep regulation, dreaming |
| Medulla: | involved in life support functions such as respiration and heart rate |
| Reticular activating system | is an arousal system within the brainstem; plays a role in keeping a person awake and alert |
| Corpus callosum: | band of axons that interconnects the hemispheres |
| Thalamus: | sensory relay area |
| Limbic system: | involved in emotionality |
| Hypothalamus: | feeding, fleeing, mating, fighting, homeostasis |
| Cerebellum: | involved in motor control |
| The Endocrine System | Network of glands; Hormones are secreted into the blood by the endocrine system Hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland (size of a pea), which is responsible for releasing hormones that flow throughout the body |
| Functions of the endocrine system: | 1. Maintain homeostasis 2. Regulate reproductive system |
| Testosterone (hormone) | causes males to develop sex characteristics and build muscle volume |
| Estrogen (hormone) | causes women to develop sex characteristics and is involved in the menstrual cycle |
| Cortisol (hormone) | helps the body cope with extra energy demands of stress by breaking down and converting fat and protein into sugar |
| Behavioral genetics | examines the influence of genes (versus environment) on behavior |
| Research strategies on behavior genetics: | Twin studies: compare the concordance (agreement) rates between identical and fraternal twins Adoption studies: compare the similarity between adopted children and their biological/adopted parents Mutations: examine behaviors in genetically abnormal sub |
| Evolutionary psychology | examines how evolutionary processes impact behavior |
| Darwin | argued that natural forces select traits that are adaptive for survival |
| Natural selection: | certain traits are passed on because these traits gave an advantage for survival Organisms with these traits are able to reproduce and pass on the trait to their offspring Genetic mutations can be beneficial or disastrous |
| Sensation | the process of receiving, converting, and transmitting information from the external and internal world to the brain |
| Perception | the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting raw sensory data into useful mental representations of the world |
| How sensation occurs? | Eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue and contain receptor cells These receptor cells receive and process sensory information from the environment |
| Transduction: | sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose, skin, tongue) convert the stimulus into neural impulses which are sent to the brain |
| An example of transduction | Receptor cells in the inner ear convert sound waves/vibrations into electrochemical signals These signals are carried by neurons to the brain |
| Sensory Adaptation | Sensory adaptation refers to the fact that repeated or constant stimulation decreases the number of sensory messages sent to the brain, which causes decreased sensation |
| Gate-Control Theory of Pain | Theory proposed by Melzack & Wall (1965) Pain sensations are processed and altered by mechanisms within the spinal cord. Experience of pain depends partly on whether the neural messages get past a neuron in the spinal cord that can either block messages |
| Vision | External light falls on receptors within the eye to generate the visual message. Light = electromagnetic energy that moves in waves Wavelength of light determines color |
| Cornea | tough, transparent layer |
| Pupil | adjustable opening |
| Iris | colored part of the eye; controls size of pupil |
| Lens | transparent elastic structure |
| Retina | group of light receptors |
| Optic Nerve | carries neural messages to the brain |
| Fovea | tiny pit in the center of the retina filled with cones and responsible for sharp vision |
| Photoreceptors | are light-sensitive cells found within the retina. |
| Rods | are sensitive to light, but not color, and are active under low-light conditions |
| Cones | are sensitive to color, are not active in low-light conditions, and allow for fine detail. |
| Sensory Coding | Activation of retinal cells by light results in action potentials that travel along neurons that project to the occipital cortex |
| Audition | Receptors within the ear are tuned to detect sound waves (changes in sound pressure level). Sound waves vary in terms of: Frequency: corresponds to pitch Amplitude: corresponds to loudness |
| Sound loudness is measured in | decibels |
| Place theory: | explains how we hear high pitched |
| Frequency Theory: | explains how we hear lower |
| sounds: | different high-pitched sounds bend the basilar membrane hair cells at different locations in the cochlea. |
| pitched sounds: | hair cells on the basilar membrane of the cochlea bend and fire action potentials at the same rate as the frequency of the sound to the auditory nerve. |
| There are 2 types of deafness (hearing lost): | Conduction deafness: Middle-ear deafness resulting from problems with transferring sound waves to the inner-ear. Nerve Deafness: Inner-ear deafness resulting from damage to the cochlea, hair cells, or auditory nerve. Disease, age, and exposure to loud |
| Lock-and-Key Theory: | humans can smell various odors because each three-dimensional odor molecule fits into only one type of receptor. |
| Taste receptors | are located on the tongue and are sensitive to five major tastes: salty, sweet, sour, bitter and umami (delicious/savory; related to meats, fish, cheese). |
| Skin Senses: | there are three basic skin sensations: touch (pressure), temperature, and pain. |
| Vestibular Sense: | sense of body orientation with respect to gravity and three-dimensional space The semicircular canals provide the brain with balance information. |
| Kinesthetic Sense: | sensory system for body posture, orientation and movement Kinsethetic receptors are found throughout the muscles, joints, and tendons of the body. |
| Perceptual processes include: | Selection refers to choosing which of many stimuli that will be processed. Organization involves collecting the information into some pattern. Interpretation involves understanding the pattern |
| Selective attention: | filtering out and attending only to important sensory messages |
| Feature detectors: | specialized cells in the brain that respond only to certain sensory information |
| Habituation: | tendency of the brain to ignore environmental factors that remain constant |
| proposed laws of organization that specify how people perceive form. | Gestaltists |
| Perceptual Constancy | is the tendency for the environment to be perceived as remaining the same even with changes in sensory input. Size constancy Shape constancy Color constancy Brightness constancy |
| Depth perception | is the ability to perceive three-dimensional space and to accurately judge distance. |
| Binocular cues | include retinal disparity and convergence. |
| Monocular cues | include linear perspective, relative size, texture gradient, light and shadow, and parallax (difference in size/shape of an object due to its being viewed from 2 disparate vantage points). |
| Trichromatic theory | Eye contains 3 different color sensitive elements Blue, green or red elements Trichromatic theory accounts for color mixing of lights |
| Opponent-Process theory | Visual system is organized into red-green, blue-yellow and black-white units. Theory can account for negative color afterimages |
| Interpretation | is influenced by: perceptual adaptation perceptual set individual motivation frame of reference |
| Subliminal stimuli | are stimuli presented below the threshold of awareness; the effect on behavior is uncertain. |
| Extrasensory Perception | refers to the ability to perceive stimuli that are outside the 5 senses |
| Telepathy: | the ability to read minds |
| Clairvoyance: | the ability to perceive objects or events |
| Precognition: | the ability to predict the future |
| Psychokinesis: | the ability to move objects |
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bella91
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