A review of the key figures mentioned in AP Psychology.
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| Mary Whiton Calkins | first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA)
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| Charles Darwin | proposed the theory of evolution; the goal of human behavior is to ensure survival and reproduction
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| Dorthea Dix | social reformer for imprisoned, poorly treated, mentally ill; worked to establish state hospitals; part of the medical model
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| Sigmund Freud | founded the psychoanalytic perspective; developed the five stages of psychosexual development, in each of which a possible fixation can occur
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| G. Stanley Hall | established the first psychology lab in the US at Johns Hopkins University
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| William James | developed functionalism, which challenged Titchener's structuralism; looked at how human mental processes worked in the real world; with Carl Lange, developed the James-Lange theory of emotion
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| Ivan Pavlov | developed classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs
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| Jean Piaget | created the cognitive development model (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operational)
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| Carl Rogers | one of the founders of the humanist branch of psychology; developed the person-centered theory based on self-concepts; emphasized client-centered therapy
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| Abraham Maslow | one of the founders of the humanist branch of psychology; created the hierarchy of needs; stressed the importance of self-actualization
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| B.F. Skinner | developed operant, or instrumental, conditioning
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| Mary Floy Washburn | first woman in America to receive a Ph.D. in psychology
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| John B. Watson | founder of behavioralism; classically conditioned Little Albert
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| Paul Broca | identified the area of the brain responsible for language; damage to the area results in expressive aphasia, or the inability to produce language
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| Michael Gazzaniga | studied patients of split-brain surgery (cutting of the corpus callosum); noticed no serious effects after surgeries
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| Roger Sperry | studied how the different hemispheres operate independent of each other
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| Carl Wernicke | identified the area of the brain responsible for understanding language; damage to the area results in receptive aphasia
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| Gustav Fechner | defined absolute threshold and the just noticeable difference
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| David Hubel | along with Weisel, discovered feature detectors
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| Torston Weisel | along with Hubel, discovered feature detectors
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| Earnest Hilgard | created the dissociation theory of hypnosis, stating hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness into a hidden observer and a consciousness prone to suggestibility
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| Albert Bandura | social learning theory; observational learning (modeling); conducted the Bo-Bo doll experiment
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| John Garcia | coined learned taste aversion
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| Robert Rescorla | developed the contingency model, proposing that in order for learning to take place, an organism must be able to predict that their behavior will result in an outcome; behavioral psychologist who studied classical conditioning
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| Edward Thorndike | created the Law of Effect: behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, those followed by negative consequences are diminished
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| Edward Toleman | created cognitive maps, or mental representations of the environment; determined cognitive maps proved latent learning
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| Wolfgang Kohler | discovered insight learning by studying chimpanzees
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| Noam Chomsky | theorized about the language acquisition device, overgeneralization, and a critical learning period for language
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| Herman Ebbinghaus | proposed the concept of a forgetting curve using nonsense syllables; concluded that most forgetting occurs within an hour
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| Elizabeth Loftus | felt eye witness accounts weren't necessarily accurate due to investigator influences and falsey implanted memories
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| George Miller | theorized that short term memory's capacity for most people is "magic number plus or minus 2;" suggested chunking for memorizing
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| Alfred Kinsey | studied sexual orientation and estimated 10% of the population in the early 1900s were homosexual
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| Stanley Schachter | along with Singer, created the Schachter-Singer two factor theory of emotion, stating emotion is experienced after a cognitive label is applied to stimuli
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| Hans Seyle | theorized of General Adaptive Syndrome, which include three stages to stress reaction: Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustion
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| Mary Ainsworth | conducted the strange-situation experiment to determine the types of attachment between a mother and child; secure, anxious-ambivalent, and anxious-avoidant attachments were found to exist
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| Albert Bandura | developed the social learning theory, or the social-cognitive perspective; we learn by imitating models (observational learning); believed in reciprocal determinism as a factor of personality; self efficacy
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| Diana Baumrind | identified three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive
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| Eric Erickson | developed the eight stages of psychosocial development, each of which contains a possible conflict
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| Carol Gilligan | disagreed with Kohlberg due to supposed male/female differences in morality; said females made moral decisions based more on social relationships
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| Harry Harlow | emphasized the importance of physical contact by studying monkeys
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| Konrad Lorenz | studied attachment with imprinting of goslings; felt there was a critical period for attachment
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| Lawrence Kohlberg | proposed three stages of moral development
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| Jean Piaget | proposed four stages of cognitive development
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| Lev Vygotsky | proposed the zone of proximal development theory; he felt social interaction, in the form of people who provide children with cognitive growth opportunities, was important for cognitive development to occur
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| Alfred Adler | believed striving for superiority was the main goal of life, not sex; inferiority motivates us to acquire new skills; studied the effects of birth order
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| Paul Costa and Robert McCrae | proposed the trait theory using the Five-Factor Model: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extroversion
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| Carl Jung | felt the unconscious incorporated both personal and collective unconscious; archetypes are ancestral memories that show up as symbols in many different cultures
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| Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon | published the first intelligence test designed to help children in school; expressed intelligence in terms of mental age
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| Francis Galton | published Hereditary Genius; believed intelligence was hereditary
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| Howard Gardener | proposed eight different measures of intelligence
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| Charles Spearman | believed intelligence had two factors, an s factor (specific mental abilities) and a common underlying g factor (general intelligence)
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| Robert Sternberg | developed the triarchic theory of intelligence, stating that intelligence is either analytical, creative, or practical
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| Louis Terman | revised Binet's test for use in the US; calculated intelligence using the formula MA/CA x 100
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| David Weschler | first to devise a test to measure intelligence in adults; established the use of the bell curve
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| Rosenhan | conducted a study showing the power of labeling on people with psychological disorders
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| Aaron Beck | emphasized cognitive therapy; the goal is to teach clients new ways of thinking and to change illogical beliefs
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| Albert Ellis | developed rational emotive behavioral therapy, which purpose is to change the catastrophizing belief that leads to negative consequences
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| Mary Carver Jones | first to successfully use classical conditioning to recondition a child to overcome a fear
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| Joseph Wolpe | used the counterconditioning technique of systematic desensitization
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| Solomon Asch | performed experiments on the effects of conformity
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| Leon Festinger | developed the theory of cognitive dissonance
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| Elton Mayo | a key figure in the branch of industrial/organizational psychology; discovered the Hawthorne Effect
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| Stanley Milgram | performed a controversial experiment on obedience using shock
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| Robert Rosenthal | identified the Pygmalion Effect among students and teachers
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| Philip Zombardo | conducted a study on the power of situations and roles by simulating a prison environment
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| Muzafer Sherif | conducted the Robbers' Cave Study and determined the best way to unite different groups was by imposing superordinate goals
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