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A&P 1 test review
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what are the levels of organization | chemical, organelle, cellular,tissue,organ, organ system, organism |
| chemical level | organization of chemical structures, separates living from non-living material, organization of atoms, molecules, macromolecule (results in living matter [cytoplasm]) |
| organelle level | chemical structures grouped together to form organelles that can perform individual functions, the functions of organelles allow the cell to live EX. mitochondria, golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum |
| cellular level | smallest and most numerous units that have & show characteristics of life, each cell has a nucleus encased in cytoplasm within a limiting membrane, cells differentiate to perform specific functions |
| tissue level | a group of similar cells specialized to perform a specific function, surrounded by non living matrix |
| organ level | organization of multiple different kinds of tissues to perform special functions, discrete and functionally complex units, each organ is unique in size, shape, appearance, and placement |
| organ system | most complex organizational units in the body, supports movement communication, control and integration transportation and defense respiration, nutrition, and excretion reproduction and devlopment |
| organismal level | all components interact to allow the human to survive and flourish |
| anterior | in front of, front |
| posterior | after, behind, following, toward the rear |
| distal | away from, farther from the origin |
| proximal | near, closer to the origin |
| dorsal | toward the back |
| ventral | toward the belly |
| superior | above, over |
| inferior | below, under |
| lateral | toward the side, away from the midline |
| medial | toward the mid-line, away from the side |
| bilateral symmetry | right and left are mirror images of one another (EX. right ear left ear) |
| ipsilateral | structures are on the same side of the body (EX. right arm, right leg) |
| contralateral | structures are on opposite sides of the body in anatomical position (EX. right arm and the left arm) |
| superficial | on the surface |
| deep | deep |
| what are the three major body planes | sagittal (midsagittal) frontal (coronal) transverse(horizontal) |
| sagittal (midsagittal) | cut from front to back |
| frontal (coronal) | cut from side to side |
| transverse (horizontal) | "crosswise" cut into upper and lower |
| what are the two types of feedback loops | positive and negative |
| positive feedback loops | stimulatory amplify/encourage the change that is occurring usually destabilizing effects that disrupt homeostasis less common EX. childbirth |
| negative feedback loops | Inhibitory produce and action that is opposite to the change that activated the system responsible for maintaining homeostasis more common EX. temperature regulation |
| components of feedback loops | stimulus sensor mechanism control center effector mechanism feedback |
| stimulus | a thing or event that disrupts homeostasis |
| sensor mechanism | specific sensors detect and react to any changes away from normal |
| control center | information is analyzed and integrated, if needed a special action is initiated |
| effector mechanism | directly influence controlled physiological variables |
| feedback | process of information about a variable, constantly flowing back from the sensor to the control center |
| what are the different levels of homeostatic control | Intracellular intrinsic extrinsic |
| intracellular | smallest level of control regulation within cells done by genes or enzymes |
| intrinsic | middle level of control regulation within tissues or organs may involve chemical signals or other "built in mechanisms" |
| extrinsic 40 | largest level of control regulation from organ to organ may involve nerve signals, or endocrine signals (hormones) |
| what is a compound | atoms of two or more elements joined to form chemical combination |
| what is an element | a sample of matter, a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more different substances |
| chemically stable | an atom that has 8 electrons in the outer shell |
| chemically unstable | an atom that has less or more than 8 electrons in the outer shell |
| define metabolism | all of the chemical reactions that occur in body cells |
| define catabolism | reactions that break down compounds end products: CO2 H2O energy/ATP |
| define anabolism | reactions that join simple molecules to make compounds dehydration synthesis/condensation |
| carbohydrates | contain C-C or C-H bonds commonly called sugars or starches monosaccharides&disaccharides/polysaccharides |
| lipids | water insoluble (critically important) major roles -energy source -structural role -integral parts of cell membranes triglycerides & fats most common, most concentrated source of energy (also include fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids) |
| proteins | most abundant organic compounds chainlike polymers of amino acids held together by peptide bonds (from polypeptides) |
| nucleic acid | DNA & RNA DNA -adenine -thymine -cytosine -guanine RNA thymine changes to uracil |
| DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid constructed of -hydrogen bonds -sugar phosphate groups -nitrogenous bases A-T C-G |
| RNA | ribonucleic acid -Pentose sugar -phosphate group -nitrogenous bases A-U C-G |
| difference between DNA and RNA | RNA contains the sugar and nucleobase -ribose -uracil DNA contains the sugar, and nucleobase -deoxyribose -thymine |
| major organelles | nucleus mitochondria lysosomes endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus |
| nucleus | -store genetic information -large membranous structure near the centre of the cell |
| mitochondria | -made up of microscopic sacs, wall composed of inner& outer membranes separated by fluid -powerhouse of the cell; enzymes catalyze series of oxidation reactions that provide almost all the cells energy supply |
| lysosomes | microscopic membranous sacs that have "pinched off" from the Golgi apparatus -the cells own digestive system, digest structures of defective cell parts |
| endoplasmic reticulum | membranous walled canals, flat and curved sacs, arranged in parallel rows throughout the cytoplasm -proteins move through the canals two types -rough endoplasmic reticulum -smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
| Golgi apparatus | membranous organelle consisting of cistern stacked on one another, near the nucleus -processes protein molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum -processed proteins leave the final cisterns in a vesicle, contents can than be secreted to outside the cell |
| what organelles break down and digest different parts of the cell | lysosomes proteasomes peroxisomes |
| lysosomes | the cells own digestive system, digest structures of defective cell parts |
| proteasome | breakdown abnormal proteins/normal proteins that are no longer needed |
| peroxisomes | small membranous sacs that contain enzymes that detoxify harmful substances that enter cells -often in kidney and liver cells |
| different types of cell extensions | microvilli cilia flagella |
| microvilli | -found in epithelial cells that line the intestines and other areas where absorption is important -help increase surface area many fold |
| cilia | -shorter more. numerous than flagella, some found in groups -have coordinated warlike movements that brush materials past the cells surface -all have sensory functions |
| flagella | -only on human sperm cells -move with a tail-like movement that propels the sperm cell forward |
| what are the two types of transport processes | active transport and passive transport |
| active transport | require the expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell types EX. -transport by pumps -transport by vesicles -endocytosis -phagocytosis -exocytosis |
| passive transport | do not require any energy expenditure of t6he cell membrane EX. -diffusion -simple diffusion -osmosis -facilitated diffusion - channel mediated passive transport -carrier mediated passive transport |
| hypertonic | "higher pressure" -cells placed in solutions that are hypertonic always shrivel as water flows out of them -has great medical importance: if medical treatment causes the extracellular fluid to become hypertonic, serious damage can occur |
| hypotonic | "lower pressure" -cells placed in a hypotonic solution may swell as water flows into them; water always osmoses from the hypotonic solution into the cytosol |
| isotonic | describes a fluid having the same potential osmotic pressure as cytosol |
| osmosis | a process by which molecules in solvent pass through a semi-permeable membrane -molecules travel from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration |
| definition of enzymes | a substance produced by a living organism that catalyzes biochemical reactions |
| function of enzymes | -regulate cell metabolism |
| what are the three pathways of cellular respiration | -glycolysis -citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) -electron transport system |
| glycolysis | start products -1 glucose end products -2 pyruvate (pyruvic acid) -4 ATP -2NADH |
| citric acid cycle | start products -acetyl CoA -3 NAD+ -FAD -GDP -P -2 H20 end products -CoA-SH -3NADH -FADH2 -3H+ -GTP -2 CO2 |
| electron transport chain | start products -NADH -FADH2 end products -ATP -H2O |
| protein synthesis | central anabolic pathway in cells 3 main steps -initiation -elongation -termination |
| initiation | Beginning in this stage, the ribosome gets together with the mRNA and the first tRNA so translation can begin. |
| elongation | Middle in this stage, amino acids are brought to the ribosome by tRNAs and linked together to form a chain. |
| termination | End in the last stage, the finished polypeptide is released to go and do its job in the cell. |
| mitosis | -2 identical cells after mitosis is completed -2 chromosomes (diploid) -2x DNA content |
| meiosis | -4 haploid cells (contain half of the chromosomes of the parent cells) -23 chromosomes |
| phases of mitosis | -interphase -prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase |
| Interphase | -variety of molecules are produced that are necessary for growth -uses the information contained in the genes of DNA molecules |
| prophase | before phase -nuclear envelope falls apart, chromatids turn to chromosomes that are joined at the centromere -centrosomes (centrioles/aster) move away from each other toward the poles of the parent cell and spindle fibres are constructed between them |
| metaphase | position changing phase -line forms in the equator of the cell -chromosomes move so that one chromatid of each chromosome faces its respective pair |
| anaphase | apart phase -the centromere of each chromosome splits to form two chromosomes each consisting of a single DNA molecule each h chromosome pulled to the nearest pole to form 2 separate but identical pools of genetic information |
| telophase | endphase -DNA returns to its original form and location in the cell -after completion of telophase each daughter cell begins to interphase to developing a mature cell |
| different forms of healing | -inflammation initiates tissue repair -tissue regeneration/scar tissue -remodeling/repair |
| inflammation tissue types involved | -connective tissue -epithelial tissue |
| tissue regeneration/scar tissue tissue types involved | greatest ability to regenerate -connective tissue -epithelial tissue limited capacity to regenerate -muscle tissue nervous tissue |
| remodelling/repair tissue types involved | -epithelial tissue -connective tissue |
| what are the different epithelial tissue types | -membranous (covering or lining) epithelium -glandular epithelium |
| membranous epithelium | -covers the body and some of its parts; lines the serous cavities, blood & lymphatic vessels, respiratory, digestive, and genitourinary tracts shapes -squamous -cuboidal -columnar psuedostratified columnar |
| glandular epithelium | -secretory units of endocrine and exocrine glands shape -cuboidal -columnar |
| different kinds of exocrine glands | -apocrine glands -holocrine glands merocrine glands |
| how do apocrine glands secrete into ducts | secreted by pinching off the distended end EX. mammary gland |
| how do holocrine glands secrete into ducts | secretion products when released cause rupture and death of the cell EX. sebaceous glands |
| how do merocrine glands secrete into ducts | secrete directly through cell membrane EX. salivary gland |
| what are the different connective tissue types | -fibrous -bone (compact bone, cancellous bone) -cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic) -blood |
| what are the different types of cartilage | -hyaline -fibrocartilage -elastic |
| characteristics of hyaline cartilage | -appearance is shiny and translucent -most abundant -located at the end of articulating bones |
| characteristics of fibrocartilage | -strongest and most durable type of cartilage -located in intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis and the menisci |
| characteristics of elastic cartilage | -provides strength and flexibility -located in external ear and larynx |
| what are the different membrane types | -cutaneous membrane -serous membrane -mucous membrane |
| where is the cutaneous membrane found in the body | found in the skin |
| where is the serous membrane found in the body | -parietal membranes:lines closed body cavitities -visceral membranes:covers visceral organs -pleura: surrounds the lung and lines the thoracic cavity -peritoneum: covers the abdominal viscera and lines the abdominal cavity |
| where is the mucous membrane found in the body | lines the ducts, passageways of the respiratory and digestive system, as well as other tracts |
Created by:
alexiswarburton
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