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A&P Exam 2
Ch. 19, 20, & 21
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What direction do veins carry blood relative to the heart? | Systemic- Towards the heart Pulmonary-Away from the heart |
| What direction do arteries carry blood relative to the heart? | Systemic- Away the heart Pulmonary-Toward the heart |
| What factors influence blood flow velocity? | blood pressure, resistance |
| Where is the greatest volume of blood found in the body at any given time? | In capacitance vessels |
| Which vessels are considered exchange vessels? | True capillaries |
| What are the layers of the blood vessel wall? | Tunica Intima, Tunica Media, Tunica Externa |
| What factors influence resistance? | Vessel Length, Vessel Diameter & Blood Viscosity |
| What is the definition of blood pressure? | Force exerted on blood vessel wall |
| What determines blood pressure? | Cardiac Output (CO), Peripheral Resistance (PR), & Blood Volume |
| Where along the circulatory systems does the most significant point of control over peripheral resistance and flow occur? | Small-diameter arterioles |
| What is systolic vs diastolic pressure? | Systolic: pressure exerted on Aorta during ventricular contraction Diastolic: lowest level of aortic pressure |
| What is pulse pressure? | Systolic pressure minus diastolic pressure |
| How do you calculate mean arterial pressure (MAP)? | diastolic pressure plus 1/3 pulse pressure |
| What blood vessels have a higher blood pressure? | Aorta/Arteries |
| What blood vessels have a lower blood pressure? | Vena Cavae/Veins |
| What factors aid in venous return? | Muscular pump, Respiratory pump, & Sympathetic vasoconstriction |
| What are the baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch sensitive to? | changes in arterial pressure |
| What hormones affect blood pressure? How? | Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: increase CO and Vasoconstriction Angiotensin II: stimulates vasoconstriction ADH: Vasoconstriction Atrial Natriuretic Peptide: decreases BP |
| How do the kidneys affect blood pressure? | regulate bp by direct and indirect renal mechanism (blood volume regulation) |
| What are the consequences of a MAP that is too low? | low bp, syncope |
| What are the consequences of a MAP that is to high? | elevated bp, cerebral edema |
| What are the different types of circulatory shock? | Hypovolemic: large-scale blood loss Vascular: extreme vasodilation Cardiogenic: heart can not sustain adequate circulation |
| What blood vessels have lower blood pressure? | capillaries |
| What factors aid in venous return? | muscular pump, respiratory pump, sympathetic vasoconstriction |
| What are the two types of intrinsic mechanisms that regulate blood flow? | Metabolic/Myogenic controls Blood flow redistribution |
| What factors regulate cerebral blood flow? | metabolic (ph &co2) myogenic(map) |
| Blood flow through venous plexuses in which organ helps regulate body temperature? | below skin surface |
| Where in the body would you find low oxygen levels causing vasoconstriction and high levels causing vasodilation? | lungs |
| Where in the body would you find high oxygen levels causing vasoconstriction and low levels causing vasodilation? | lungs |
| What are the two forces that determine fluid movements out of or into the blood vessels? | hydrostatic- force exerted by fluid pressing on wall colloid osmotic |
| What is edema? | abnormal increase in interstitial fluid |
| What are the major functions of the lymphatic system? | returns fluid leaked from blood vessels back to blood |
| What are the major lymphatic structures? | lymphatic vessels, lymph, lymph nodes |
| How does the permeability of lymph capillaries compare to blood capillaries? | More permeable |
| Where are lacteals found? What do they do? | in intestinal mucosa, absorb digestive fat & deliver fatty lymph (chyle) to blood |
| What mechanisms are involved in lymph transport? | Milking action of skeletal muscles, pressure changes during breathing, valves, pulsations, smooth muscle contractions |
| What is the main function of T cells? | Manage immune response |
| What is the main function of B cells? | produce plasma cells (secrete antibodies which mark antigens for destruction) |
| What is the difference between a primary and secondary lymphoid organ? | Primary- where t/b cells mature Secondary- where mature cells encounter first antigen and activate |
| What are the two main functions of lymph nodes? | 1. Cleansing lymph (filter) 2. immune system activation |
| How are the numbers of afferent and efferent vessels of a lymph node different? | Fewer efferent vessels allow for stagnate flow |
| Which is the largest lymphoid organ? | Spleen |
| What is the difference in function between the red and white pulp of the spleen? | White pulp: where immune function occurs Red pulp: where old blood cells are destroyed |
| Where are mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues found? | in mucous membranes |
| What is the function of tonsils? | gather and remove pathogens in air and food |
| Which lymphoid organ does not directly fight antigens? | Thymus |
| What is the function of the immune system? | Provides resistance to disease |
| What are the two main divisions of the immune system? | Innate (nonspecific) & Adaptive (Specific) |
| Which division of the immune system lacks the capacity to remember a pathogen or react differently to it in the future? | Innate (nonspecific) |
| Which immune system division utilizes memory cells to adapt to a given pathogen and ward it off more easily in the future? | Adaptive (specific) |
| What are the innate body defenses? | surface and internal defenses |
| Which are the most abundant phagocytes? | neutrophils |
| Which of the white blood cells develops into macrophages, the chief phagocytic cells? | macrophages |
| What are the benefits of inflammation? | prevents spread, disposes of cell debris/pathogens, alerts adaptive immune system, prepares for repair |
| What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation? | redness, heat, swelling, pain |
| What causes local hyperemia that leads to the redness and heat of an inflamed area? | arteriole dilation |
| What are the two families of antimicrobial proteins associated with the immune system? | interferons and complement proteins |
| What are interferons? How do the work? | proteins released in response to presence of a virus |
| What are the three methods of pathogen destruction brought about by the complement system? | classical: antibodies coating the target cell lectin: lectins binding to specific sugars on microorganism's surface) alternative: spontaneous activation |
| What is a pyrogen? | increase body temperature |
| How is the adaptive immune system different from the innate system? | adaptive: specific defense system, eliminates almost any pathogen or abnormal cell in body, amplifies inflammatory response, activates complement |
| What is a hapten? | involve molecules that are too small to be seen so they there not immunogenic by themselves |
| What is immunocompetence? | lymphocytes can only recognize one specific antigen |
| What is self-tolerance? | lymphocytes must be able unresponsive to own antigens |
| Which lymphocytes develop immunocompetence in the bone marrow? | B lymphocytes |
| Which lymphocytes develop immunocompetence in the thymus? | T lymphocytes |
| What is clonal selection? | naive lymphocyte's first encounter with antigen triggering further development |
| What does an antigen presenting cell do? | engulf antigens and present the fragments to T-calls for recognition |
| What are the major antigen presenting cells? | dendritic cells, macrophages, B-cells |
| What is required for T-cell activation? | antigen presenting cell and protein bonding |
| What is required for B-cell activation? | antigens bind to surface receptors |
| What cells secrete antibodies? | plasma cells: antibody-secreting effector cells |
| What are examples of natural passive immunity? | antibodies from mother to fetus/infant |
| What are examples of artificial active immunity? | Vaccine |
| Which of the antibody classes is the most abundant? | IgG |
| What are the defensive mechanisms used by antibodies? | go after extracellular pathogens, inactivate and tag antigens |
| What do CD4+ cells usually become? | helper T cells (Th) |
| Which cells display class I MHC? | all cells excepts RBC's |
| Which cells display class II MHC? | APC's (dendritic, macrophages, and B cells) |
| What is vital for activation of naive T cells and normal functioning of effector T cells? | Antigen presentation |
| What are cytokines? | chemical messengers of immune system, mediate cell development, differentiation, and immune responses |
| What type of T cell can directly attack and kill other cells, such as virus-infected cells? | cytotoxic T cells (Tc) |
| Which T cells are important in preventing autoimmune diseases? | Regulatory T cells (TReg) |
| What are the effects of infection with the HIV virus? | destruction of Th cells, collapsing immune system |
| What are specific examples of autoimmune diseases? | Multiple sclerosis, Graves' disease, glomerulonephritis |
| How is an allergen different from an antigen? | allergen (otherwise harmless) is perceived as a threat |
| What are the characteristics of type I (acute) hypersensitivities? | begin within seconds of contact. initial exposure is harmless |
| What changes occur to the immune system as we age? | immune system decreases, greater susceptibility to immunodeficiency and autoimmune diseases, greater incidence of cancer |
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sayagiselle
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