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A&P Exam 4
Ch. 24, 25, & 26
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the major macronutrients, their sources, and their functions? | Carbs- (grains) use glucose in the body for energy Lipids (triglycerides) major fuel of hepatocytes and skeletal muscle Proteins- (animal products) have structural material and functional molecules |
| What do neurons and red blood cells rely on for their energy production? | Glucose -Neurons die quickly without glucose |
| What are the most abundant dietary lipids? | triglycerides |
| What are essential amino acids? | animal products |
| What is the source of vitamin A? | beta-CARROTene |
| What is the source of vitamin D? | sunlight synthesized in skin |
| What is the source of vitamin B? | in intestinal bacteria |
| What is the source of vitamin K? | in intestinal bacteria |
| Which vitamins are fat-soluble? | A, D, E, and K |
| Which vitamins are water-soluble? | B and C |
| Which of the vitamins are known to be antioxidants? | Vitamins A, C, and E |
| Which mineral is essential for oxygen binding to hemoglobin? | Iron |
| What is anabolism? | synthesis of large molecules from small ones |
| What is catabolism? | Hydrolysis of complex structures to simpler ones |
| What are the two coenzyme that acts as hydrogen (or electron) acceptors in the oxidative pathway for ATP production? | NAD+ and FAD |
| What are the three pathways of complete metabolism of glucose? | Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain |
| Which of the three pathways of complete metabolism of glucose is anaerobic? | Glycolysis- anaerobic |
| Which of the three pathways of complete metabolism of glucose is aerobic? | Citric Acid cycle and Electron transport chain |
| Which mechanism produces the most ATP during cellular respiration, substrate level phosphorylation or oxidative phosphorylation? | Electron transport chain |
| What is gluconeogenesis? | Forms glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors |
| What is glyconeogenesis? | Storage of glucose to form glycogen |
| What is glycolysis? | Storage of glucose to form glycogen |
| What is lipogenesis? | Forms lipids from acetyl CoA and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate |
| What is lipolysis? | Breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol |
| What is Transamination? | Transfers an amine group from an amino acid to α-ketoglutaric acid, generating glutamic acid |
| What is Oxidative deamination? | Converts fatty acids to acetyl CoA |
| What is the major metabolic thrust of the post-absorptive state? | Catabolism and replacement of fuels in blood |
| What is the major metabolic thrust of the absorptive state? | Anabolism and energy storage |
| Which hormone directs nearly all of the steps of the absorptive state? | Insulin |
| Which hormone directs nearly all of the steps of the post-absorptive state? | plasma glucagon |
| What are the metabolic effects of diabetes mellitus? | inadequate insulin production Causes: unavailability of glucose, Excessively high blood glucose levels, Glucose loss in urine, Fats and proteins are used for energy instead |
| What are the various mechanisms of heat production? | Basal metabolism Muscular activity Thyroxine and epinephrine Temperature effect |
| What are the characteristics of metabolic syndrome? | Increase waist circumference, Increase blood pressure Increase blood glucose, Increase triglycerides, Decreased HDL cholesterol |
| What are the main organs of the urinary system? | Ureters, bladder, urethra |
| How are the kidneys aligned in the abdominal cavity? | retroperitoneal in the superior lumbar region, |
| What is the role of the fatty tissue surrounding the kidney? | holds the kidneys up |
| What are the anatomical structures from the renal papilla to the bladder? | 1. Renal papilla 2. Minor calyx 3. Major calyx 4. Renal pelvis 5. Ureter 6.Bladder |
| What is the structural and functional unit of the kidney? | Nephrons |
| In which kidney region are all renal corpuscles located? Cortex or Medulla? | cortex |
| What two structures make up the renal corpuscle? | Glomerulus and Glomerular capsule |
| What is the difference between the renal corpuscle and the renal capsule? | The renal corpuscle is a specific structure inside the kidney that filters blood to make urine, while the renal capsule is a covering outside the kidney that helps protect it. |
| What are the parts of the kidney tubule and their primary functions? | Proximal Convoluted tubule (PCT): Reabsorption and secretion Nephron loop: Reabsorption Distal Convoluted tubule (DCT): secretion |
| Which region of the kidney tubules contains microvilli? Why? | Proximal Convoluted tubule (PCT): increase surface area |
| What’s the difference between a cortical nephron and a juxtaglomerular nephron? | Cortical nephrons: Make up 85% of nephrons Juxtaglomerular nephron: production of urine |
| Which is important for setting up the salinity gradient of the medulla? | Juxtaglomerular nephron |
| What are some unique properties of the glomerulus? What feeds and drains this capillary bed? | multiple pores for capillaries, fed by the arteriole, afferent arterioles enters glomerulus and leaves via efferent arteriole |
| Where is blood plasma filtered in the kidneys? | Glomerulus |
| What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus? | regulating the rate of filtration and blood pressure |
| What does the macula densa do? | Chemoreceptors that sense NaCl |
| What do the granular cells do? | Mechanoreceptors to sense blood pressure |
| What are the three major processes in urine formation? | 1. Glomerular filtration: produces cell-and protein-free filtrate 2. Tubular reabsorption: returns 99% of substances from the filtrate to blood 3. Tubular secretion: moves substances from blood to filtrate |
| What two main categories of substances do not pass through the filtration barriers in the renal corpuscle? | Proteins and cells |
| What two main categories of substances pass through the filtration barriers in the renal corpuscle? | Water, glucose, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes can pass |
| What would happen to net filtration if the hydrostatic pressure in the capsular space were significantly increased above normal? | reduces net filtration pressure and decreases GFR. |
| What would happen to net filtration if the hydrostatic pressure in the capsular space were significantly decreased above normal? | increases net filtration pressure and increases GFR. |
| What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? | amount of filtrate formed per minute by the two kidneys combined. |
| What is the primary focus of extrinsic controls of kidney glomerular filtration rate? Intrinsic controls? | Extrinsic controls maintain systemic blood pressure. Intrinsic controls maintain GFR in kidneys. |
| How do the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback maintain constant GFR? | adjusting the diameter of the afferent arteriole and altering the filtration membrane surface area |
| How does an increase in sympathetic innervation of the kidneys affect urine output? | decreases urine output by stimulating vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles, |
| What is the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism? | hormonal mechanism that regulates blood pressure and blood volume by adjusting the rate of renal sodium reabsorption and water retention. |
| What is the primary mechanism of glucose reabsorption in the kidneys? | secondary active transport with sodium ions. |
| Where does the primary mechanism of glucose reabsorption in the kidneys mostly occur? | proximal convoluted tubule. |
| Where in the nephron does most solute reabsorption occur? | proximal convoluted tubule. |
| What is the difference in function of the ascending versus the descending limb of the nephron loop? | The descending limb of the nephron loop is permeable to water and allows passive water reabsorption but NOT solutes The descending limb of the nephron loop is permeable to water and allows passive water reabsorption but NOT solutes |
| Which is permeable to water, the ascending or descending limb of the nephron loop? | The descending limb |
| Which can transport solute, the ascending or descending limb of the nephron loop? | The ascending limb |
| What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) do? | (ADH) promotes water reabsorption |
| How does ADH affect the number of aquaporin water channels in the collecting duct? | by increasing the number of aquaporin water channels |
| How is this related to the permeability of the collecting duct? | allows more water to be reabsorbed, reducing urine output and conserving water. |
| What hormone promotes active tubular secretion of potassium ions into, along with sodium absorption from, filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting ducts? | Aldosterone |
| What is countercurrent multiplication? | renal medulla maintains a high osmotic gradient, |
| What is countercurrent exchange? | exchange of solutes and water between the descending and ascending limbs of the vasa recta, |
| What structure of the kidney tubules is most important for urine concentration? | The nephron loop (loop of Henle) |
| How does the permeability of the collecting tubule to water relate to making more dilute or more concentrated urine? | allows for more water reabsorption, resulting in more concentrated urine. |
| What is an osmotic diuretic? | substance not reabsorbed, so water remains in urine and it enhances urinary output; |
| How does osmotic diuretic relate to diabetes mellitus? | high glucose concentration pulls water from body |
| What is the muscle that makes up the wall of the urinary bladder? | detrusor muscle. |
| What type of muscle makes up the internal urethral sphincter? | smooth muscle fibers- involuntary |
| What type of muscle makes up the external urethral sphincter? | skeletal muscle fibers- voluntary |
| What is micturition? | urination |
| What is renal failure? | kidneys are unable to effectively filter waste |
| What are the major body fluid compartments? | intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF) |
| In which compartment of the body is the majority of water stored? | intracellular fluid. |
| What is the most common cation found in the interstitial fluid? | sodium (Na+) |
| What is the most common cation found in the intercellular fluid? | potassium (K+). |
| What are the major routes of fluid loss? | urine, feces, sweat, and evaporation |
| What accounts for the route through which most fluid is lost in a day? | Urine |
| What is the normal osmolality range for body fluids? | 280-300 mOsm/kg. |
| What factors are involved in triggering the thirst mechanism? | increased osmolality of the ECF and decreased blood volume or pressure. |
| What happens to the shape of cells in hypotonic hydration (water gain)? | swelling |
| What happens to the shape of cells in dehydration? | shrinking |
| What is hyponatremia? | low sodium levels in the blood. |
| How can hyponatremia occur? | renal insufficiency or rapid excess water intake |
| What are the symptoms of hyponatremia? | metabolic disturbances, nausea, vomiting, muscular cramping, cerebral edema, and possible death. |
| To which ion is the body's water volume closely tied? | sodium ions (Na+). |
| What homeostatic mechanisms are linked to Na+ -water balance? | aldosterone, angiotensin II, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). |
| What hormones lead to water retention? | Aldosterone and ADH |
| Which hormone is associated with monthly cyclical changes? | ADH |
| What is hypokalemia? | low potassium levels. |
| What do hyperkalemia and hypokalemia lead to? | lead to changes in membrane potential and affect excitability in neurons and muscle cells. |
| What is hyperkalemia? | high potassium levels |
| What is hypercalcemia? | high calcium levels |
| What is hypocalcemia? | low calcium levels |
| What do hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia lead to? | disrupt blood clotting, cell membrane permeability, and neuromuscular excitability. |
| What is the normal range of blood pH? | 7.35-7.45 |
| What pH is considered alkalosis? | blood pH is above 7.45, |
| What pH is considered acidosis? | acidosis when it is below 7.35 |
| What are the three buffering mechanisms of the body (chemical and physiological)? | are chemical buffers, respiratory regulation, and renal regulation |
| Which buffering agent is the strongest? | Renal system |
| How does the bicarbonate buffer system work? | converts carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid |
| What is the connection between blood CO2 levels, blood H+, and blood pH? | Abnormal levels of blood CO2 characterize respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. |
| Abnormal levels of which molecule in the blood characterizes respiratory acidosis and alkalosis? | bicarbonate ions |
| What is the most important renal mechanism for regulating acid-base balance of the blood? | kidney's ability to reabsorb bicarbonate ions and secrete hydrogen ions. |
| How does the respiratory system try to compensate for metabolic alkalosis? | decreasing breathing |
| How does the respiratory system try to compensate for metabolic acidosis? | increasing the rate and depth of breathing. |
| How do the kidneys try to compensate for respiratory alkalosis? | |
| How do the kidneys try to compensate for respiratory acidosis? |
Created by:
sayagiselle
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