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Cell Biology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| how are amino acids bonded together | peptide bonds |
| proteins are ___ | polymers |
| bonded amino acids form ____ | polypeptides |
| structural proteins | give cells and/or tissues characteristics like ridgity, elasticity, tensile strength etc. |
| example of structural proteins | collagen (CT) - bones, muscles keratin (integument) - hair, skin, nails |
| functional proteins | acts as catalysts (speed up) facilitating chemical reactions |
| example of functional proteins | enzymes, antibodies (protect from foreign), peptide hormones (functions in body) |
| 4 levels of protein structures | primary secondary tertiary quaternary |
| what are proteins made of | polymers of amino acids |
| how many diff types of amino acids are there | 20 |
| what does each amino acid structure have | amine group (nitrogen) and carboxylic acid |
| what varies in an aa structure | R group |
| functional proteins | allosteric (structure and function change) and undergo conformational changes or "shape shifting" |
| why do functional proteins undergo shape shifting | binding with a drug, hormone, or another enzyme |
| biological catalysts | increase speed of reaction (millions/min) |
| biological catalysts naming | often named for the reaction they catalyze usually ends in -ase ex - hydrolases, oxidases |
| primary structure of protein | linear sequence of amino acids (necklace) |
| secondary structure of protein | twists and bends includes alpha helix and beta sheets |
| alpha helix | looks like telephone cord coiling of primary chain |
| beta sheets | linked folds |
| teritary strucutre of protein | additional folding to form globular molecule |
| quaternary strucutre of protein | 2 or more polypeptide chains merge to form a complex protein |
| molecular chaperones | associate w/ client" proteins -prevent accidental, premature, or incorrect folding -aid the desired folding process -help to translocate proteins and certain metal ions across all membranes |
| molecular chaperones continued | -promote breakdown of damaged proteins -interact with immune cells to trigger immune response to diseased cells in the body |
| protein synthesis two steps | transcription and translation |
| what is the master blueprint for protein synthesis | DNA |
| DNA is transcribed into | mRNA |
| where is DNA transcribed | inside the nucleus |
| RNA Polymerase purpose | builds the mRNA polymer from DNA |
| how is DNA transcribed | DNA polymer unzips and mRNA molecule is formed from the template strand |
| gene | segment of DNA with blueprint for 1 polypeptide |
| transcription | uses DNA as a template to build RNA |
| transcription step 1 | enzyme RNA Polymerase attaches to the promoter of a gene with the help of tf (transcription factor) |
| transcription step 2 | RNA Polymerase unzips DNA and adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the template strand of DNA |
| transcription step 3 | RNA Polymerase continues to elongate/build the new strand of mRNA RNA polymerase moves toward the terminator |
| transcription step 4 | At the terminator, transcription is complete as RNA Polymerase detachs from DNA, A new molecule of mRNA is formed. |
| DNA bases | AGCT 5'-3' |
| RNA bases | AGCU 5'-3' |
| Transcription factors | binds to a promoter (has a TATA box) and recruits RNA polymerase mediates the binding of RNA polymerase to promoter some are hormone senstive |
| promoter | specifying start site of a gene to be transcribed |
| why is gene transcription regulated | do you want stomach acid in your eyeballs |
| what does rna polymerase do | makes mRNA unzips dna helix uses dna template strand to add and join together, complementary rna nucleotied stops when it reaches the terminator mrna pinches of the DNA template. leaves nucleas and enter cytosl for translation |
| where does transcription occur | nucleas |
| Spliceosome | a big protein enzyme (smaller nuclear RNA and other proteins = small nuclear ribonucleoprotein complex "snurp" many snurps+spliceosome |
| splicing | takes out intron s(junk) and glues together exons (codes) in the need order occurs in the nucleus unique to eukaryotes |
| translation | uses the sequence of a,u,g,c to code for amino acid sequence in protein building requires ribosomes (translation enzymes, free floating or attached to ER) |
| where does translation occur | cytosol |
| codons | triplets of nucleotide bases that form genetic library (AUG,CUG, etc.) mRNA codon chart make amino acid CUG = leucine |
| tRNA function | brings AA to ribosome bind to aa and pair with bases of codons of mRNA at ribosome to being process of protein synthesis |
| rRNA function | structural/functional part of ribosome along with tRNA helps translate message from mRNA |
| how do we go from codons to protein | anti-codons on tRNA |
| translation step 1 | mRNA leaves nucleas via nuclear pore |
| translation step 2 | mRNA attaches to ribosome (@ small ribosomal subunit) |
| what is mRNA start codon | AUG |
| translation step 3 | anticodon of a tRNA molecule binds to its complementary codon on mRNA molecule and adds its amino acid o the forming protein chain (@ large ribosomal subunit) |
| translation step 4 | new amino acids are added by other tRNAs as ribosome moves until step codon is recieved |
| translation step 5 | peptide bonds are formed between amino aicds to form growing polypeptide large and small subunits detach |
| ribosomal Recyling | mRNA is released from small subunit |
| mRNA purpose | carries instructions for building a polypeptide from gene in DNA to ribosomes in cytoplasm |
| sequence of protein synthesis | DNA-RNA-aa sequence |
| fate of new polypeptide - rough er | does initial protein folding/modification |
| fate of new polypeptide - Golgi apparatus | does final protein modification and export |
| cell cycle | defines changes from formation of the cell until it reproduces |
| phases of cell cycle | interphase (G1, S, G2) Mitosis (mitotic cell division) |
| Cell division is essential for | body growth and tissue repair |
| G1 phase | growth |
| S phase | DNA synthesis |
| G2 phase | growth and preparation for mitosis |
| cell division may not occur in | most matrue cells of nervous tissue, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle |
| phases of mitosis | prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis |
| nuclear division vs non-nuclear contents | cytokinesis-non-nucelar |
| dna must __ before division | replicate |
| somatic cells (not sex) | DNA replicates once before mitosis |
| spermatogonia/oogenia | DNA replicates once before meiosis |
| dna replication occurs during | s subphase of interphase |
| dna replication | process that copies entiere genomic dna of a cell required for cell division |
| end result of dna replication | 2 double-stranded dna molecules formed from the original one "replicated" chromosome "semi-conservative" replication one dna is new and other is old |
| dna replication process | helicase unzips the orginal helix and exposes complemntary dna strands |
| replication fork | y-shaped site of replication |
| each exisiting nucleotide strand serves as a | template for building new complementary strand |
| dna polymerase function | polymerizes nucleotides into new strands "proof-reads" new strands and removes most mistakes |
| dna polymerase direction | builds new strand 5'-3' |
| leading strand | continuous synthesized and grows as helicase unzips original strand |
| lagging strand | discontinuous synthesized in segments (Okazaki) |
| DNA ligase | "glues" together short segments of lagging strand |
| dna replication and protein synthesis | initiation, elongation, termination translation has ribosomal recyling |
| telomeres | repeating subunits at the end of chromosomes (strings of DNA) -progressive shortening during DNA Replication may limit overall number of divisions that can occur |
| "go" signals | critical volume of cell when area of membrane is inadequete for exchange chemicals (eg growth factors, hormones, etc) |
| "stop" signals | contact inhibition growth-inhibiting factors produced by repressor genes |
| mitosis is regulated by | nutrition, age, hormones, avaiable space, gentics (ex - P53 genes) |
| P53 genes | repairs DNA or triggers "the guardian of the genome" apoptosis (cell death) |
| mitosis | produces identical copies of cells |
| diplod cells | divide forming more diploid cells |
| somatic cells | routinely undergo mitosis to replace aging/damaged cells |
| meosis | produces haploid sex cells |
| how are haploid cells formed | diploid cells divide in 2 rounds |
| haploid cells are | genetically unique and chromosomes are unpaired (haploid) |
| phases of meiosis | prophase 1 metaphase 1 anaphase 1 telophase 1 prophase 2 metaphase 2 anaphase 2 telophase 2 |
| prophase 1 | synaspsis/crossover/recombination |
| metaphase 1 | independent assortment occurs |
| prophsae - mitosis | The chromosomes become visible as chromatin threads. The chromosomes become shorter, thicker and clearly visible. Each chromosome now forms two district chromatrids joined by a centrometre. Nucleolus is gradually disappear formation of spindle fibres |
| metaphase - mitosis | the chromosomes (now parried) called chromatids arranged themselves along the equator or middle of the spindle. The chromatids are attached to the spindle by centrometre. |
| anaphase - mitosis | The chromatids of each chromosome separate. The start migrating to the poles of the cell by elongation of the spindle axis. The chromatids eventually reach the pole. |
| telophase - mitosis | dividing into two by line of division chromosome looses their thick and nuclear material, nucleus and nuclear membrane reformed. The spindle structure disappear and the cell split completely into two daughter cells having the same condition as interphase |
| cytokinesis - mitosis | The division of the cell at telophase into daughter cells |
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study222
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