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Human Anatomy 72616
Lecture 14-18
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Chapter 14: Nervous Tissue Central Nervous System (CNS) inclues: | -Brain & Spinal Cord |
| Chp 14: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Includes: | Crainal Nerves, Spinal Nerves, & Ganglia |
| Chp 14: Crainal Nerves has | 12 pairs |
| Chp 14: Spinal Nerves has | 31 pairs |
| Chp 14: Sensory & Motor Nervous System with both CNS & PNS components preform 3 general functions for receptors : | - Collect information - Process & evaluates information - Initiate response |
| Chp 14: Collection Information | Receptors goes through the PNS detects changes in enviroment ; passes information to the CNS. Detect stimuli (sensory input); Detects changes (dendrites of sensory neurons). |
| Chp 14: Process & evaluates information | CNS determines required reponse. Motor neurons delivers impluses to effectors ( muscle glands) |
| Chp 14: Initiate response | CNS initiates impluses (rapid movements of an electrical charge) that PNS carries to effectors (cells receiving the impluses, such as muscles or glands) to react to changes in evironment |
| Chp 14: Sensory Nervous System (afferent) recieves sensory information from receptor in PNS & transmits it to CNS of 2 subdividing components | - Somatic sensory (conscious) - Visceral sensory unconscious of) |
| Chp 14: Somatic sensory (conscious) | detection of stimuli through the general senses such as touch, pain, pressure, vibration, and proprioception |
| Chp 14: Visceral sensory unconscious of) | impulses from blood vessels and viscera |
| Chp 14: sensory nervous system or afferent | receives information from receptors |
| Chp 14: Somatic sensory (conscious) functions: | general somatic senses (touch, pain, pressure, vibration, temperature, proprioception or position of joints & limbs |
| Chp 14: Somatic sensory (conscious) speacial senses: | special senses (taste, vision, hearing, balance, & smell) with voluntary functions |
| Chp 14: Visceral sensory unconscious of) | visceral receptors detect chemical composition of blood or stretch of organ wall (involuntary & not aware of them) |
| Chp 14: Motor nervous system (efferent) sends impulses from CNS through PNS to muscles and glands subdivided into two systems: | -Somatic motor (somatic nervous system; SNS) -Autonomic motor (autonomic nervous system; ANS) |
| Chp 14: Somatic motor (somatic nervous system; SNS) | voluntary; conducts impulses that cause contraction of skeletal muscles |
| Chp 14: Autonomic motor (autonomic nervous system; ANS) | involuntary; conducts impulses that regulate smooth and cardiac muscle, as well as glands |
| Chp 14: CYTOLOGY of Nervous System • Two distinct types of cells within the nervous system | -Neurons - Glial cells |
| Chp 14: Neurons | The neuron is the basic structural unit of the nervous system • Conducts nerve impulses from one place to another |
| Chp 14: Neurons • Special characteristics: | – High metabolic rate – Extreme longevity – Nonmitotic – Excitable (respond to a stimulus) |
| Chp 14: Glial cells | nonexcitable cells that support and protect the neurons |
| Chp 14: Neuron Structure | Neurons vary in shape, but most have a cell body, dendrites, and an axon |
| Chp 14: Cell body (soma) contains several organelles : | – Nucleus with nucleolus – Mitochondria – Chromatophilic substances: free ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum • Dendrites are short processes that branch from the cell body – Dendrites receive signals and transfer them to the cell body |
| Chp 14: Parts of a Neuron | •Neuron •Cell body • Perikaryon • Neurotubules • Neurofilaments • Neurofibrils • Dendrites • Axon/nerve fiber • Axon hillock • Axon collaterals • Terminal arborizations or telodendria • Synaptic Knob |
| Chp 14: Neuron | Structural & functional cell of the nervous system; sometime called a nerve cell |
| Chp 14: Cell body | Nucleus & surrounding cytoplasm of a neuron (excluding its dendrites & axon ) |
| Chp 14: Perikaryon | Most often refers to the cytoplasm within the cell bodySometime used to describe the entire body. |
| Chp 14: Neurotubules | Microtubles that form the cytoskeleton |
| Chp 14: Neurofilaments | intermediate filaments that aggregate to form bundles called neurofibrils |
| Chp 14: Neurofibrils | Aggregates of neurofilaments that extend as a complexnetwork into dendrites and axons, their tensilstrength provides support for these processes |
| Chp 14: Dendrites | Neuron processes that conducts information to the cell body (input) |
| Chp 14: Axon/nerve fiber | Neuron process that conducts nerve impluses away from the cell cell body (output) |
| Chp 14: Axon hillock | Triangular region connecting cell body to axon |
| Chp 14: Axon collaterals | Side branches of an axon |
| Chp 14: Terminal arborizations or telodendria | Fine terminal branches of an axon or axon collateral |
| Chp 14: Synaptic Knob | Slightly expanded regions at the tips of terminal arborizations |
| Chp 14: Axon | An axon transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body and toward other cells |
| Chp 14: Neurons without axon | Neurons without an axon are called anaxonic |
| Chp 14: Unipolar | single dendrite, short process branches like a T from cell body start out as bipolar then the 2 processes fuse into a single process • -most sensory neurons of the PNS are unipolar neurons |
| Chp 14: Bipolar | two dendrite processes, one dendrite and one axon • -bipolar (one axon & one dendrite) is uncommon in humans; only in olfactory epithelium of nose & retina of eye |
| Chp 14: Multipolar | many dendrites and a single axon; most common type of neuron • -multipolar is most common – motor neurons to muscles & glands |
| Chp 14: Functional classes of neurons: 3 types according to the direction the nerve impulse travels relative to the CNS: | -Sensory neurons (afferent) – Motor neurons (efferent) – Interneurons (association neurons) |
| Chp 14: Sensory neurons (afferent) | transmit impulses about stimuli from sensory receptors to CNS |
| Chp 14: Motor neurons (efferent) | transmit impulses from CNS to muscles or glands |
| Chp 14: Interneurons (association neurons) | retrieve, process, and store information; communicate between sensory and motor neurons |
| Chp 14: Glial cells (neuroglia) | • Found in both CNS and PNS • Smaller and more numerous than neurons • Capable of mitosis • Typically do not transmit impulses but do help with the functions of neurons • -guide young neurons to their destination during development • -support, protec |
| Chp 14: Glial cells (neuroglia) contains: | contains 86 billion neurons, same with neuroglia (currently 50% neuroglia, 50% neurons) |
| Chp 14: Four types of glial cells in CNS | – Astrocytes – Ependymal cells – Microglial cells – Oligodendrocytes |
| Chp 14: Astrocytes Most abundant glial cells in the CNS; functions include: | – Help form the blood–brain barrier (BBB) – Regulate tissue fluid composition – Form a structural network – Replace damaged neurons – Assist neuronal development – Help regulate synaptic transmission – Change synapse numbers |
| Chp 14: Astrocytes Most abundant glial cells in the CNS; functions include part 2 : | -oversee up to 2 million synapses -undergo astrocytosis (replacement of damaged neurons) -assist neuronal development by secreting chemicals -star-like shape -touch capillaries & neurons -most abundant glial cells in CNS -90% of nervous tissue in so |
| Chp 14: Ependymal Cells | Ciliated cuboidal epithelial cells that line ventricles of brain and central canal of spinal cord • Help produce cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and help form choroid plexus -ependymal cells + nearby capillaries form the choroid plexus -cilia help circul |
| Chp 14: Microglial Cells | Microglia are small cells that move through CNS and engulf debris -5% in CNS -wander in CNS -replicate in response to infection -phagocytic like macrophages |
| Chp 14: Oligodendrocytes | • Associated with CNS axons only • Wrap themselves around the axons like electrical tape wrapped around a wire • Produce myelin, which is an insulator of electrical activity |
| Chp 14: Two types of glial cells are found in the PNS: | |
| Chp 14: Satellite Cells | physically separate cell bodies in a ganglion from interstitial fluid -regulate continuous exchange of nutrients & waste products between neurons & environment |
| Chp 14: Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells) | elongated, flattened cells, produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS |
| Chp 14: Myelination of Axons Myelin affects the ability of neurons to conduct | nerve impulses (action potentials) |
| Chp 14: Myelination | the process of wrapping the axon with a myelin sheath to electrically insulate it |
| Chp 14: Unmyelinated Axons Unmyelinated axons propagate impulses by | continuous conduction, where the impulse travels along the entire length of the axon membrane |
| Chp 14: Nerves | nerve is a cablelike bundle of parallel axons |
| Chp 14: Three types of connective tissue wrappings are in and around nerves | –Endoneurium: – Perineurium: – Epineurium: |
| Chp 14: Endoneurium: | around each individual axon |
| Chp 14: Perineurium: | around each fascicle of axons |
| Chp 14: Epineurium | around the entire nerve |
| Chp 14: Synapses | Synapses are specialized junctions between two neurons, or between a neuron and a muscle or gland cell |
| Chp 14: A typical synapse consists of | –Presynaptic neuron: – Synaptic cleft: – Postsynaptic neurons |
| Chp 14: Presynaptic neuron | has synaptic knobs at axon endings for sending signal |
| Chp 14: Synaptic cleft | narrow space between cells |
| Chp 14: Postsynaptic neuron | Recives signals |
| Chp 14: hree common types of synapses, named based on which part of the postsynaptic neuron is contacted | - Axodendrictic - Axosomatic - Axoaxonic |
| Chp 14: Axodendrictic | Axodendrictic- between synaptic knobs of axon and dendrites |
| Chp 14: Axosomatic | Axosomatic- between synaptic knobs of axon and soma |
| Chp 14: Axoaxonic | Axoaxonic - between synaptic knobs of one axon and axon |
| Chp 14: Electrical synapses | Electric synapes involve gap junctions between joined cells – Ions rapidly flow from one cell to another – Rare in the nervous system |
| Chp 14: Chemical synapses | Chemical synapses involve release of neurotransmitter by presynaptic cell upon arrival of impulse at end of axon |
| Chp 14: Neurons are grouped into patterns called | neural circuits |
| Chp 14: Converging: | impulses come together to a single postsynaptic neuron |
| Chp 14: Example of Converging: | saliva production . food pictures, smell of food, looking at clock for dinner, hearing food preparation lead to a single output, which is salivation |
| Chp 14: Diverging | mpulses spread from one presynaptic neuron to many postsynaptic neurons |
| Chp 14: Example of Diverging | a few neurons in the motor cortex of brain stimulating thousands of muscle fibers in a muscle |
| Chp 14: Reverberating: | cyclical stimulation of the breathing circuit |
| Chp 14: Example of Reverberating: | breathing rhythm |
| Chp 14: Parallel-after-discharge: | several neurons process the information simultaneously (in parallel) |
| Chp 14: Example of Parallel-after-discharge: | higher-order thinking (mathmatic equations and calcualtions ) |
| Chp 14: Nervous tissue | derived from the ectoderm germ layer |
| Chp 14: Neural plate: | thickened ectoderm that undergoes neurulation |
| Chp 14: Neural groove | develops in plate; cells at margin become neural crest |
| Chp 14: Neural crest | Folds on either side of groove grow together forming hollow neural tube |
| Chp 14: Neural tube | forms the central nervous system |
| Chp 14: Neurulation | formation of nervous tissue structures |
| Chapter 15: Active synapses | intelligence is determined by the number of active synapses among neurons |
| Chp 15: Human size brain: | increased in volume & weight until limited by skull size; the folds on surface increased, so more neurons can fit -very versatile response to various stimuli simultaneously (more than a computer) |
| Chp 15: The brain is composed of 4 major regions: | – Cerebrum – Diencephalon – Brainstem – Cerebellum |
| Chp 15: Structures of the Cerebrum | -folds or gyri -sulci or shallow depressions between folds |
| Chp 15: brain is associated with 12 pairs of cranial nerves | Outer surface of brain’s cerebrum is wrinkled |
| Chp 15: Gyri: | folds |
| Chp 15: Sulci: | depressions between folds |
| Chp 15: Directional terms used include | -Anterior (rostal) -Posterior (caudal) |
| Chp 15: Anterior (rostal) | towards the nose |
| Chp 15: Anterior (rostal) | towards the tail |
| Chp 15: telencephalon envelops | diencephalon |
| Chp 15: formation of sulci & gyri | (develop at late fetal period) |
| Chp 15: three brain vesicles develop -> give rise to regions of brain | 1. forebrain or prosencephalon 2. midbrain or mesencephalon 3. hindbrain or rhombencephalon |
| Chp 15: Prosencephalon develops | into telencephalon (develops into cerebrum) |
| Chp 15: Diencephalon developes | into epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus |
| Chp 15: Mesencephalon develops | into midbrain (develops into cerebral peduncle, superior & inferior colliculi) |
| Chp 15: Rhombencephalon develops | into the 4th ventricle |
| Chp 15: Metencephalon developes | into pons and cerebellum |
| Chp 15: Myelencephalon developes | into medulla oblongata |
| Chp 15: 2 distinct tissue matter areas in brain & spinal cord: | : gray matter & white matter |
| Chp 15: Gray matter: | – Houses motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, telodendria, unmyelinated axons – Forms cerebral cortex, which covers surface of most of adult brain |
| Chp 15: Within the white matter, gray matter forms deep clusters of neuron cell bodies called | cerebral nuclei |
| Chp 15: White matter: | Made up of myelinated axons – Deep to the gray matter of the cortex |
| Chp 15: Cranial meninges Pia Mater made up of | made up of areolar connective tissue (adheres to the brain |
| Chp 15: Arachnoid mater made up of | made up of collagen & elastic fibers (form a delicate web called arachnoid trabeculae) |
| Chp 15: Subarachnoid space | deep into the arachnoid mater where arachnoid trabeculae extend -between arachnoid mater & dura mater is a potential space (subdural space) |
| Chp 15: potential space becomes an actual space when fluids & blood accumulate called | Subdural hematoma |
| Chp 15: Cranial meninges are connective tissues that function in: | – Separating brain from bones of cranium – Protecting blood vessels of brain; form some large veins that drain blood from brain – Containing and circulating cerebrospinal fluid |
| Chp 15: Three layers of cranial meninges | • Pia mater: thin, innermost layer adhering to brain • Arachnoid mater • Dura mater |
| Chp 15: Pia mater- | thin, innermost layer adhering to brain |
| Chp 15: Arachnoid mater- | has web of fibers called arachnoid trabeculae |
| Chp 15: Dura mater- | tough outer layer |
| Chp 15: Dura mater: tough outer layer with two sublayers | -meningeal layer - periosteal layer |
| Chp 15: meningeal layer | Deeper meningeal layer (superficial to subdural space) |
| Chp 15: periosteal layer | More superficial periosteal layer |
| Chp 15: Dura mater is made up of | dura mater is made up of dense irregular connective tissue |
| Chp 15: Periosteal layer of dura mater forms | forms the periosteum on internal surface of cranial bones |
| Chp 15: Epidural space | -potential space between dura mater & skull bone; contains arteries, veins that nourish meninges & cranial bones |
| Chp 15: The meningeal layer extends into cranial cavity at four locations to form double-layered dura | cranial dural septa |
| Chp 15: four locations to form double-layered dura called cranial dural septa | – Falx cerebri – Tentorium cerebelli – Falx cerebelli – Diaphragma sellae |
| Chp 15: Falx cerebri- | projects into longitudinal fissure; separates left and right cerebral hemispheres |
| Chp 15: Tentorium cerebelli- | horizontal fold that separates cerebrum from cerebellum |
| Chp 15: Falx cerebelli- | separates left and right cerebellar hemispheres |
| Chp 15: Diaphragma sellae- | small septum between pituitary and hypothalamus |
| Chp 15: Dural venous sinuses location- | form in locations where the two layers of the dura mater have separated : -Superior sagittal sinus -Inferior sagittal sinus |
| Chp 15: Superior sagittal sinus- | located within the superior margin of the falx cerebri |
| Chp 15: Inferior sagittal sinus- | located within the inferior margin of the falx cerebri |
| Chp 15: Transverse sinuses- | located within the posterior border of the tentorium cerebelli |
| Chp 15: Occipital sinus- | located in the posterior vertical border of the falx cerebelli |
| Chp 15: dural venous sinuses formation- | are formed from separation of meningeal & periosteal layers in specific areas that is filled with blood (triangular in X-section, but veins without valves to regulate blood flow) |
| Chp 15: dural venous sinuses "veins'- | large veins that drain blood from brain to internal jugular veins |
| Chp 15: cranial dural septa 4"location"- | double layer of dura mater as flat partitions into cranial cavity at 4 locations separates specific parts of brain; provide additional stability & support to the brain 1. falx cerebri 2. entorium cerebelli: 3.f alx cerebelli 4. diaphragma sellae |
| Chp 15: 1. falx cerebri "location"- | ocated in midsagittal plane; largest dural septa; projects between left & right cerebral hemisphere (longitudinal fissure); attaches anteriorly to crist galli of ethmoid; posteriorly to internal occipital crest of skull |
| Chp 15: 2. tentorium cerebelli "location"- | orizontal fold of dura mater; separates occipital & temporal lobes of cerebrum from cerebellum; tentorial notch is a gap at anterior surface for passage of brainstem |
| Chp 15: 3. falx cerebelli "location"- | vertical partition separates right & left cerebellar hemispheres |
| Chp 15: 4. diaphragma sellae "location"- | smallest of dural septa; forms roof over sella turcica of sphenoid bone; infundibulum (stalk) passes a small opening in diaphragma sellae (attaches pituitary gland to base of hypothalamus |
| Chp 15: Brain Ventricles- | from lumen of embryonic neural tube -cavities within the brain -continuous with the central canal of spinal cord |
| Chp 15: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): | clear liquid that circulates in ventricles and subarachnoid space |
| Chp 15: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) "functions"- | – Buoyancy – Protection: –Environmental stability choroid plexus –ependymal cells |
| Chp 15: – Buoyancy: | brain “floats” in the CSF |
| Chp 15: – Protection: | provides liquid cushion |
| Chp 15: –Environmental stability | transports nutrients and removes waste from brain • Formed by the choroid plexus in each ventricle |
| Chp 15: ependymal cells | Composed of a layer of ependymal cells and the capillaries that lie within the pia mater |
| Chp 15: CSF does- | supports 95% of the brain’s weight • -protects nervous tissue from chemical fluctuations • -excess CSF transported to venous circulation -> filtered from the blood -> secreted in urine in urinary system |
| Chp 15: (BBB) Blood Brain Barrier- | Blood–brain barrier (BBB) regulates what substances can enter interstitial fluid of brain |
| Chp 15: BBB is missing or reduced in three locations of CNS | – Choroid plexus (because the capillaries must be permeable to make CSF) – Hypothalamus (hormones are made that need ready access to blood) – Pineal gland (hormones are made that need ready access to blood) |
| Chp 15: Cerebrum | oluntary motor, visual, auditory activities -intelligence, reasoning, sensory perception, thought, memory, judgment |
| Chp 15: Cerebrum "location"- | Cerebrum is location of conscious thought and origin of intellectual functions |
| Chp 15: Cerebrum contains: | Contains an outer cortex, inner white matter, and deep regions of gray matter called cerebral nuclei - Surface is marked by gyri (ridges), sulci (grooves), and deep fissures |
| Chp 15: Cerebrum composed- | The cerebrum is composed of two halves called left and right cerebral hemispheres |
| Chp 15: longitudinal fissure | Hemispheres are divided by a longitudinal fissure that extends along the midsagittal plane |
| Chp 15: corpus callosum | The corpus callosum is the largest tract that connects the two hemispheres |
| Chp 15: Each hemisphere is divided into five lobes | 1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Temporal lobe 4. Occipital lobe 5. Insula |
| Chp 15: Frontal lobe | Frontal lobe is located deep to the frontal bone and forms anterior part of cerebral hemisphere |
| Chp 15: central sulcus & lateral sulcus | Ends posteriorly at central sulcus; inferior border marked by lateral sulcus |
| Chp 15: Frontal lobe function | voluntary movement, concentration, verbal communication, decision making, planning, and personality |
| Chp 15: Parietal lobe | forms superoposterior part of each hemisphere and is under parietal bone |
| Chp 15: Precentral gyrus | s ridge in frontal lobe just anterior to central sulcus |
| Chp 15: parieto-occipital sulcus | Terminates anteriorly at the central sulcus, laterally at the lateral sulcus, and posteriorly |
| Chp 15: Postcentral gyrus | is ridge in parietal lobe immediately posterior to central sulcus |
| Chp 15: Parital lobe function | Parietal lobe is involved with general sensory functions |
| Chp 15: Temporal lobe | Temporal lobe is inferior to lateral sulcus, under the temporal bone |
| Chp 15: Temporal lobe function | temporal lobe Involved with hearing and smell |
| Chp 15: Occipital lobe | Occipital lobe is in posterior region of each hemisphere underneath occipital bone |
| Chp 15: Occipital lobe function | Processes incoming visual information and stores visual memories |
| Chp 15: Insula | Insula is deep to the lateral sulcus |
| Chp 15: Insula function | Involved in interoceptive awareness, emotion, empathy, taste |
| Chp 15: Three categories of functional areas are recognized: | – Motor areas: control voluntary motor functions – Sensory areas: provide conscious awareness of sensation – Association areas: integrate and store information |
| Chp 15: Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) controls | Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) controls |
| Chp 15: Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) location | Located within precentral gyrus; axons project contralaterally to brainstem and spinal cord |
| Chp 15: Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) innervation | Innervation to various body parts can be diagrammed as a motor homunculus on the precentral gyrus |
| Chp 15: Primary motor cortex (somatic motor area) indication | indicates the amount of motor control that area receives |
| Chp 15: Motor speech area (Broca area) controls | controls muscular movements necessary for vocalization |
| Chp 15: Motor speech area (Broca area) location | Located in most individuals within the inferolateral portion of the left frontal lobe |
| Chp 15: Frontal eye field controls | helps control and regulate eye movements |
| Chp 15: Frontal eye field location | Located on superior surface of middle frontal gyrus, immediately anterior to premotor cortex -anterior to premotor cortex in frontal lobe (control & regulate eye movements) |
| Chp 15: Primary Somatosensory Cortex indication | indicates the amount of sensory information received by that region |
| Chp 15: Primary Somatosensory Cortex location | is located within the postcentral gyrus – This area receives general somatic sensory information from touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors |
| Chp 15: Sensory homunculus | may be traced on surface |
| Chp 15: Primary visual cortex | processes visual information; located in occipital lobe |
| Chp 15: Primary auditory cortex | processes auditory information; located in temporal lobe |
| Chp 15: Primary gustatory cortex | processes taste information; located in insula |
| Chp 15: Primary olfactory cortex | provides awareness of smell; located in temporal lobe |
| Chp 15: primary motor & primary sensory cortical regions | primary motor & primary sensory cortical regions are connected to adjacent association areas |
| Chp 15: primary motor & primary sensory cortical regions intergrates | integrate new sensory inputs with memories of past experience |
| Chp 15: premotor cortex located | Located in frontal lobe just anterior to precentral gyrus |
| Chp 15: somatosensory association areas | somatosensory association areas store sensory/sensation memories |
| Chp 15: visual association area intergrates | integrates a visual information into a recognizable picture of an object, face, etc |
| Chp 15: association areas | association areas must work together with motor speech area |
| Chp 15: Premotor cortex | coordinates skilled motor activities |
| Chp 15: Somatosensory association area integrates | integrates and interprets sensory information |
| Chp 15: Somatosensory association area location | Located in parietal lobe just posterior to post central gyrus |
| Chp 15: Auditory association area interpretation | interprets characteristics of sound and stores memories of sound |
| Chp 15: Auditory association location | Located in temporal lobe, posteroinferior to primary auditory cortex |
| Chp 15: Visual association area function | processes visual information |
| Chp 15: Visual association area location | Located in occipital lobe, surrounding primary visual cortex |
| Chp 15: Wernicke area recognition | recognizes and comprehends spoken and written language |
| Chp 15: Wernicke area location | located in left hemisphere overlapping the parietal and temporal lobes |
| Chp 15: Higher-Order Processing Centers association | association areas are considered higher order |
| Chp 15: Higher-Order Processing Centers function | unctions such as speech, cognition, understanding spatial relationships, and general interpretation |
| Chp 15: Central White Matter Tracts | • Brain’s white matter is deep to cortical gray matter • Composed primarily of myelinated axons |
| Chp 15: Most axons are bundled into tracts of three types: | - Association tracts -Commisural tracts -Projection tracts |
| Chp 15: - Association tracts | Association tracts connect areas within one hemisphere |
| Chp 15: -Commisural tracts | Commissural tracts connect two hemispheres |
| Chp 15: -Projection tracts | Projection tracts connect cerebrum to lower areas (e.g., spinal cord) |
| Chp 15: Arcuate fibers | Arcuate fibers within a lobe |
| Chp 15: Longitudinal fasciculi | Longitudinal fasciculi connect different lobes of same hemisphere |
| Chp 15: association tracts | -assocation tracts connect different regions of cerebral cortex with in same hemisphere |
| Chp 15: arcuate fibers | -association tracts connect different regions of cerebral cortex with in same hemisphere |
| Chp 15: longitudinal fasciculi | longitudinal fasciculi are long tracts, connect gyri in different lobes of same hemisphere (example: Wernicke area & motor speech area connection) |
| Chp 15: commissural tracts: | commissural tracts: link left & right cerebral hemisphere (example: corpus callosum: C-shaped smaller anterior & posterior commissures |
| Chp 15: projection tracts: | projection tracts: link cerebral cortex to inferior brain regions & spinal cord (example: corticospinal tracts between cerebrum & brainstem & spinal cord for motor signals |
| Chp 15: -internal capsule: | tracts between cerebral nuclei |
| Chp 15: Cerebral nuclei (basal nuclei) | Cerebral nuclei (basal nuclei) are masses of gray matter located deep within brain’s white matter |
| Chp 15: Caudate nucleus- | helps coordinate walking - C-shaped; to stimulate appropriate muscles for pattern & rhythm of arm, & leg movements when walking |
| Chp 15: Amygdaloid body- | participates in emotional expression -posterior to caudate nucleus for emotion expression, control of behavioral activities, mood development |
| Chp 15: Lentiform nucleus- | involved in movement and muscle tone - made up of putamen & globus pallidus between insula & diencephalon for muscular movement (subconscious), regulate skeletal muscle tone |
| Chp 15: Cerbral nuceli(basal nuclei) | Composed of putamen and globus pallidus |
| Chp 15: Claustrum- | consciousness and processing of multiple sensory stimul -nternal to insula (unclear function, but with extensive connection with cerebral cortex areas so maybe consciousness & integrating info from multiple senses |
| Chp 15: corpus striatum- | term of the striped appearance of internal capsule |
| Chp 15: Diencephalon- | conscious awareness of emotional states |
| Chp 15: Components of the diencephalon include: | – Epithalamus – Thalamus – Hypothalamus |
| Chp 15: Epithalamus- | The epithalamus partially forms posterior roof of diencephalon and covers third ventricle |
| Chp 15: Components of the Epithalamus | – Pineal gland: – Habenular nuclei: |
| Chp 15: – Pineal gland: | Pineal gland: secretes melatonin, a hormone that regulates circadian rhythm |
| Chp 15: – Habenular nuclei: | Habenular nuclei: relays signals from limbic system to midbrain; involved in visceral and emotional responses to odor |
| Chp 15: Thalamus | filter so only few sensory info is forwarded to the cerebrum |
| Chp 15: interthalamic nuclei | connects the right & left thalamus |
| Chp 15: Function of interthalamic nuceli anterior group | motor cortex excitability & mood |
| Chp 15: lateral group | sensory & emotional info |
| Chp 15: medial group | sensory & emotional info |
| Chp 15: posterior group | visual info, auditory, sensory info |
| Chp 15: anterior nucleus | thirst center |
| Chp 15: arcuate nucleus | appetite, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, growth hormone releasing hormone, prolactin inhibiting hormone |
| Chp 15: mamillary body | controls swallowing, olfaction sensation processing |
| Chp 15: paraventricular nucleus | oxytocin production |
| Chp 15: preoptic area | thermostat nfluences heart rate, blood pressure, digestive activities, respiration -secretes hormones to influence pituitary gland |
| Chp 15: suprachiasmatic nucleus | controls sleep-wake cycle |
| Chp 15: supraoptic nucleus | antidiuretic hormone production |
| Chp 15: ventromedial nucleus | satiety |
| Chp 15: Hypothalamus | is the anteroinferior region of diencephalon • Thin, stalklike infundibulum extends inferiorly from hypothalamus to attach to pituitary gland • Specific nuclei control various functions in body: – Master control of the autonomic nervous system – Mast |
| Chp 15: Brainstem | connects forebrain and cerebellum to spinal cord Passageway for all tracts between cerebrum and spinal cord |
| Chp 15: Brainstem contains: | Contains many autonomic and reflex centers required for survival • Houses nuclei of many of the cranial nerves |
| Chp 15: Three regions form the brainstem: | – Midbrain – Pons – Medulla oblongata |
| Chp 15: Midbrain | Midbrain is superior portion of brainstem |
| Chp 15: Midbrain has nuceli 2 cranial nerves for eye movement: | CN III oculomotor nerve & trochlear nerve (CNIV) |
| Chp 15: Cerebral aqueduct | extends through midbrain and connects third and fourth ventricles |
| Chp 15: Cerebral aqueduct surrounded by | Surrounded by periaqueductal gray matter |
| Chp 15: tegmentum integrates | tegmentum integrates info from cerebrum & cerebellum & responsible for involuntary motor command to erector spinae muscles of the back to maintain posture while standing, etc. |
| Chp 15: Tegmentum | is between substantia nigra and periaqueductal gray; relays information between cerebrum and cerebellum |
| Chp 15: substantia nigra | melanin pigmented 2 nuclei; neurons produce neurotransmitters dopamine for movement control, emotional response, & pleasure and pain |
| Chp 15: substantia nigra | Degeneration of substantia nigra underlies Parkinson’s disease |
| Chp 15: Somatic motor axon | Somatic motor axons descend from primary motor cortex through cerebral peduncles to spinal cord |
| Chp 15: Superior cerebellar peduncles | connect cerebellum to midbrain |
| Chp 15: -tectum: | in midbrain; with 2 nuclei called tectal plate |
| Chp 15: -superior colliculi: | visual reflex center |
| Chp 15: inferior colliculi: | auditory reflex center |
| Chp 15: Pons | Pons bulging region on anterior brainstem |
| Chp 15: pons with sensory & motor tracts connect | connect to brain & spinal cord |
| Chp 15: superior olivary complex: | auditory input & pathway of sound localization |
| Chp 15: Middle cerebellar peduncles | are transverse fibers that connect pons to cerebellum |
| Chp 15: Middle cerebellar peduncles contains | Contains autonomic nuclei in pontine respiratory center that help regulate breathing |
| Chp 15: Houses sensory and motor cranial nerve nuclei for trigeminal | for trigeminal (CN V), abducens (CN VI), and facial (CN VII) nerves |
| Chp 15: Superior olivary complex nuclei receive | Superior olivary complex nuclei receive auditory input and help localize sound source |
| Chp 15: Medulla oblongata (medulla) | is most inferior part of brainstem |
| Chp 15: Pyramids | are composed of motor projection tracts called the corticospinal tracts |
| Chp 15: Most axons in pyramids cross midline at | decussation of the pyramids |
| Chp 15: decussation of the pyramids | Contains nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis which relay somatic sensory information to thalamus |
| Chp 15: Medulla oblongata (medulla) contains | Contains several autonomic nuclei |
| Chp 15: Cardiac center: | regulates heart rate and its strength of contraction |
| Chp 15: Vasomotor center: | controls blood pressure by regulating contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in walls of arterioles |
| Chp 15: Medullary respiratory center: | regulates respiratory rate - involved in coughing, sneezing, salivation, swallowing, gagging, and vomiting |
| Chp 15: Cerebellum | 2 hemispheres; each hemisphere has 2 lobes (anterior & posterior) separates by primary fissure |
| Chp 15: vermis | separates left & right cerebellar hemispheres |
| Chp 15: Cerebellum now believed to be responsible for | responsible for mood, behavior, cognition, language |
| Chp 15: The cerebellum is the | The cerebellum is the second largest part of brain |
| Chp 15: The cerebellum partitioned into three regions | -cerebellar cortex -arbor vitae -Cerebellar nuclei |
| Chp 15: Outer gray matter layer of | cerebellar cortex |
| Chp 15: Internal region of white matter, called the | arbor vitae |
| Chp 15: In deepest layer | Cerebellar nuclei |
| Chp 15: Folds of cerebellar cortex are called | Folia |
| Chp 15: Cerebellar Peduncles • Three thick tracts link the cerebellum with the brainstem: | – Superior cerebellar peduncles: connect midbrain to cerebellum – Middle cerebellar peduncles: connect pons to cerebellum Brain & Cranial Nerves Notes 13 – Inferior cerebellar peduncles: connect medulla oblongata to cerebellum |
| Chp 15: Limbic System | is composed of cerebral and diencephalic structures that form a ring around the diencephalon |
| Chp 15: Limbic System structure | Its structures process and experience emotions |
| Chp 15: Limbic System affect | Affects memory formation through integration of past memories of physical sensations with emotional states |
| Chp 15: Cingulate gyrus: | ridge superior to corpus callosum; brings emotions into consciousness |
| Chp 15: Parahippocampal gyrus: | tissue associated with hippocampus (functions in memory) |
| Chp 15: Hippocampus: | nucleus shaped like a seahorse; essential in consolidating long-term memories |
| Chp 15: Amygdaloid body: involved | nvolved in emotion, especially fear; helps sort and code memories based on how they are emotionally perceived |
| Chp 15: Olfactory bulbs, olfactory tract, olfactory cortex: | odors can provoke emotions/memories |
| Chp 15: Fornix: | thin tract of white matter connecting hippocampus with other limbic structures |
| Chp 15: Various nuclei in diencephalon also contribute | contribute to emotional function |
| Chp 15: abbrevrated for "S" | Sensory |
| Chp 15: abbrevrated for "M" | Motor |
| Chp 15: abbrevrated for "B" | Both Sensory & Motor |
| Chp 15: Functions S --- CN I | Olfactory ---> |
| Chp 15: S ---> CN II | Optic --> Optic canal |
| Chp 15: M ---> CN III | Ocolumotor |
| Chp 15: M ---> CN IV | Trochlear ---> Superior Orbital Fissure |
| Chp 15: B ---> CN V | Trigeminal ---> Superior Orbital Fissure |
| Chp 15: M---> CN VI | Abudens ---> Superior Orbital Fissure |
| Chp 15: B---> CN VII | Facial |
| Chp 15: S-->CN VIII | Vestibulocochlear ---> Internal Acoustic Meatus |
| Chp 15: B ---> CN IX | Glossophryngeal ---> Jugular Foremen |
| Chp 15: B ---> X | Vagus ---> Jugular Foremen |
| Chp 15: M---> XI | Accessory ---> Jugular Foremen |
| Chp 15: M---> XII | Hypoglossal ---> Hypoglossal canal |
| Chp 15: V1 | Ophthalmic Branch (goes through Superior Orbital Fissure) |
| Chp 15: V2 | Maxillary Branch (foreman Rotundum) |
| Chp 15: V3 | Mandibular Branch (Foreman Ovale) |
| Chapter 16: Spinal cord | Spinal cord is a vital link between brain and rest of the body |
| Chp 16: Spinal nerves serve two important functions: | • A pathway for sensory and motor impulses • Responsible for reflexes—our quickest reactions to stimuli |
| Chp 16: Spinal cord is | is ¾ of an inch in diameter, 16–18 in. long |
| Chp 16: Spinal cord extends | Extends from foramen magnum to L1 vertebra |
| Chp 16: Five parts of spinal cord named for the nerves that attach to them (listed superior to inferior) | • Cervical part • Thoracic part • Lumbar part • Sacral part • Coccygeal part |
| Chp 16: conus medullaris | The tapering inferior end of spinal cord |
| Chp 16: Cauda equina: | Cauda equina: “Horse’s tail”—axons that extend inferiorly from spinal cord’s conus medullaris |
| Chp 16: Filum terminale: | Filum terminale: Thin strand of pia mater within cauda equina that attaches conus medullaris to coccyx |
| Chp 16: cervical enlargement | The cervical enlargement is located in the inferior cervical part of the spinal cord and innervates the upper limbs |
| Chp 16: lumbosacral enlargement | The lumbosacral enlargement extends through the lumbar and sacral parts of the spinal cord and innervates the lower limbs |
| Chp 16: External surface of cord has two longitudinal depressions | • Anterior median fissure Posterior median sulcus |
| Chp 16: How many nerves in the cervical nerves | 8 cervical nerves (C1–C8 |
| Chp 16: How many nerves in the thoracic nerves | 12 thoracic nerves (T1–T12 |
| Chp 16: How many nerves in the lumbar nerves | 5 lumbar nerves (L1–L5) |
| Chp 16: How many nerves in the sacral nerves | 5 sacral nerves (S1–S5) |
| Chp 16: How many nerves in the coxccyegeal nerves | 1 coccygeal nerve (Co1 |
| Chp 16: Spinal Nerves | spinal nerves are mixed nerves that contain both motor and sensory axons |
| Chp 16: dura mater only | only has meningeal layer, NO periosteal layer |
| Chp 16: pia mater is made up of | is made up of elastic and collagen fibers |
| Chp 16: Spinal cord meninges | are continuous with cranial meninges |
| Chp 16: Epidural space | sits between dura and periosteum of vertebra |
| Chp 16: subdural space | potential space separating dura mater from deeper arachnoid mater |
| Chp 16: Subarachnoid space | is a real space filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF |
| Chp 16: innermost meninx that adheres directly to the spinal cord | pia mater |
| Chp 16: Pia mater consist of | Consists of a delicate layer of elastic and collagen fibers |
| Chp 16: Has paired, lateral triangular extensions called | denticulate ligaments |
| Chp 16: Gray matter: | dendrites and cell bodies of neurons, unmyelinated axons, and glial cells |
| Chp 16: White matter: | Myelinated axons |
| Chp 16: Gray matter is centrally located in spinal cord Subdivided into | • Anterior horns • Lateral horns • Posterior horns • Gray commissure |
| Chp 16: Within gray matter are functional groups of neuron cell bodies called | nuclei |
| Chp 16: Sensory nuclei in posterior horns contain interneuron cell bodies of | somatic sensory nuclei and visceral sensory nuclei |
| Chp 16: Motor nuclei in the anterior horns contain | somatic motor nuclei |
| Chp 16: Autonomic motor nuclei | are in the lateral horns |
| Chp 16: Anterior horns | house somas of somatic motor neurons |
| Chp 16: Lateral horns | contain somas of autonomic motor neurons |
| Chp 16: Posterior horns | contain axons of sensory neurons and cell bodies of interneurons |
| Chp 16: Gray commissure | contains unmyelinated axons for communication between right and left side |
| Chp 16: The gray commissure houses a narrow | Central canal |
| Chp 16: Lateral horns only found | -Only found in the T1–L2 parts of spinal cord |
| Chp 16: Partitioned into three regions, each called a funiculus: | • Posterior funiculus • Lateral funiculus • Anterior funiculus |
| Chp 16: Anterior funinculi | Anterior funinculi connected by white commissure |
| Chp 16: Axons within each funiculus are organized into smaller structural units called | tracts |
| Chp 16: anterior and lateral funiculi contain | ontain both ascending and descending tracts (sensory and motor axons, respectively) |
| Chp 16: posterior funiculus contains | contains only sensory (ascending) tracts |
| Chp 16: 31 pairs of spinal nerves extend from spinal cord • Made up of motor and sensory axons • Contain connective tissue wrappings: | • Endoneurium • Perineurium • Epineurium |
| Chp 16: Multiple anterior rootlets | arise from the spinal cord and merge to form a single anterior root |
| Chp 16: Anterior roots | contain motor axons only |
| Chp 16: Multiple posterior rootlets | derive from a single posterior root |
| Chp 16: Posterior roots | contain sensory axons only |
| Chp 16: Motor axons | arise from cell bodies in the anterior and lateral horns of the spinal cord |
| Chp 16: Sensory axons | arise from cell bodies in the posterior root ganglion, which is attached to the posterior root |
| Chp 16: Each anterior root and its corresponding posterior root unite within the intervertebral foramen to become a | Spinal nerve |
| Chp 16: Spinal nerves contain | contains both motor & sensory axons |
| Chp 16: posterior ramus | The posterior ramus innervates the deep muscles and skin of the back |
| Chp 16: anterior ramus | The anterior ramus innervates the anterior and lateral portions of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs |
| Chp 16: multiple anterior rootlets and multiple posterior rootlets | arises from the spinal cord |
| Chp 16: dermatome | A dermatome is a segment of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve |
| Chp 16: Anesthesia | in a region could indicate specific spinal nerve damage |
| Chp 16: Shingles | rash includes blisters along dermatome |
| Chp 16: referred visceral pain | pain in one organ is mistakenly referred to a dermatome (potentially nowhere near the organ in pain) |
| Chp 16: Cervical Plexuses | Left and right cervical plexuses are formed by anterior rami of spinal nerves C1–C4 |
| Chp 16: phrenic nerve | The phrenic nerve originated primarily from C4 and some contributing axons of C3 and C5 |
| Chp 16: phrenic nerve functions | Travels through the thoracic cavity to innervate the diaphragm |
| Chp 16: brachial plexuses | he left and right brachial plexuses are networks of nerves that supply the upper limbs |
| Chp 16: brachial plexus has 2 divisions | anterior division innervates muscles that flex the upper limbs; posterior division innervates muscles that extend the upper limbs |
| Chp 16: Anterior rami of C5–T1 form the roots unite to form the: | Superior trunk • Middle trunk • Inferior trunk |
| Chp 16: Superior trunk: | Nerves C5 & C6 |
| Chp 16: Middle trunk: | Nerves C7 |
| Chp 16: Inferior trunk | Nerves C8 & T1 |
| Chp 16: The anterior and posterior divisions converge to form three cords: | • Posterior cord • Medial cord • Lateral cord |
| Chp 16: Five major terminal branches emerge from the three cords | • Axillary nerve • Median nerve • Musculocutaneous nerve • Radial nerve • Ulnar nerve |
| Chp 16: Nerve plexus | A nerve plexus is a network of interweaving anterior rami of spinal nerves |
| Chp 16: Anterior rami of spinal nerves T1–T11 are | intercostal nerves |
| Chp 16: intercostal nerves | travel in the spaces between adjacent ribs |
| Chp 16: Spinal nerve T12 is called a | subcostal nerves |
| Chp 16: subcostal nerves | arises below the ribs |
| Chp 16: T1 | the intercostal nerves do not form plexuses • Part of T1 helps form brachial plexus; part of T1 lies in first intercostal space |
| Chp 16: T2 | nnervates intercostal muscles of the second intercostal space and is sensory for axilla and medial surface of arm |
| Chp 16: T3-T6 | innervate intercostal muscles and are sensory for the anterior chest wall |
| Chp 16: T7-T12 | innervate intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles, and overlying skin |
| Chp 16: neural tube | CNS develops from |
| Chp 16: neural crest cells | cranial and spinal nerves develop from |
| Chp 16: Neural canal | becomes central canal of spinal cord |
| Chp 16: Basal plates | form anterior horns, lateral horns and anterior part of gray commissure |
| Chp 16: Alar plates | form posterior horns and posterior part of gray commissure |
| Chapter 18: Somatic nervous system (SNS) | works on processes that are perceived or consciously controlled |
| Chp 18: Somatic sensory part | involves vision, hearing, touch, proprioception, and so on |
| Chp 18: Somatic motor part | involves control of skeletal muscles |
| Chp 18: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) | is a motor system regulating processes below the conscious level to maintain homeostasis |
| Chp 18: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) also called | also called autonomic (visceral) motor system |
| Chp 18: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) response: | Reflexively responds to visceral sensory inputs (e.g., vessel stretch) |
| Chp 18: Autonomic nervous system (ANS) sends | Sends impulses to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands |
| Chp 18: In SNS a single lower motor neuron axon extends from the spinal cord to skeletal muscle fibers | The motor neuron has a large myelinated axon and releases acetylcholine to stimulate muscle |
| Chp 18: has a large myelinated axon and releases acetylcholine to stimulate muscle | Preganglionic and ganglionic neurons |
| Chp 18: The first neuron | first neuron in the ANS pathway is the preganglionic neuron; its cell body is in the brain or spinal cord |
| Chp 18: myelinated preganglionic axon | Thin, myelinated preganglionic axon extends to second cell within an autonomic ganglion in peripheral nervous system |
| Chp 18: The second neuron | second neuron is called a ganglionic neuron |
| Chp 18: unmyelinated postganglionic axon | Thin, unmyelinated postganglionic axon extends to effector cells |
| Chp 18: Two-neuron pathway in ANS allows for greater communication and control due to: | - Neuronal convergence: - Neuronal divergence: |
| Chp 18: Neuronal convergence: | Axons from numerous preganglionic cells synapse on a single ganglionic cell |
| Chp 18: Neuronal divergence: | Axons from one preganglionic cell synapse on numerous ganglionic cells |
| Chp 18: Parasympathetic division - ( help) | helps conserve energy and replenish nutrient stores (“rest-and-digest”) |
| Chp 18: Sympathetic division - (prepares) | prepares body for emergencies (“fight- or-flight”); increases alertness and makes nutrients available for use |
| Chp 18: terminal ganglia | close to target organ |
| Chp 18: intramural ganglia | in wall of target organ |
| Chp 18: There are four cranial nerves associated with the parasympathetic division: | – Oculomotor (CN III) – Facial (CN VII) – Glossopharyngeal (CN IX) – Vagus (CN X) |
| Chp 18: Preganglionic neuron | neuron cell bodies are housed within lateral gray regions of S2–S4 spinal cord segments |
| Chp 18: Preganglionic axons | neuron cell bodies are housed within lateral gray regions of S2–S4 spinal cord segments |
| Chp 18: Preganglionic fibers | fibers project to ganglionic neurons within terminal or intramural ganglia of large intestine, rectum, reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and distal ureter |
| Chp 18: Sympathetic division is also called | called the thoracolumbar division |
| Chp 18: Sympathetic trunks located | located anterior to spinal nerves and immediately lateral to vertebral column |
| Chp 18: Sympathetic trunk ganglia (paravertebral or chain ganglia) housed | house sympathetic ganglionic neuron cell bodies; one sympathetic ganglion typically associated with each spinal nerve |
| Chp 18: Cervical portion | portion of each sympathetic trunk is partitioned into the superior, middle, and inferior ganglia |
| Chp 18: Postganglionic axons from cell bodies | axons from cell bodies in superior cervical ganglion distribute to structures in the head and neck |
| Chp 18: Middle and inferior cervical ganglia house neurons | house neurons that extend postganglionic axons to thoracic viscera |
| Chp 18: Preganglionic sympathetic axons of T1–L2 spinal nerves are carried by | white rami communicantes |
| Chp 18: White rami color reflects | myelination |
| Chp 18: Postganglionic sympathetic axons are carried from sympathetic trunk to spinal nerve by | gray rami communicantes |
| Chp 18: Gray color rami reflects | reflects lack of myelin on axons |
| Chp 18: Gray rami connect | connect to all spinal nerves including cervical, sacral, and coccygeal spinal nerves |
| Chp 18: In crisis situations," mass activation" | increases in alertness, energy availability, heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate and depth |
| Chp 18: mass activation occurance | (simultaneous stimulation of many effectors) occurs |
| Chp 18: Autonomic plexuses | are collections of sympathetic postganglionic axons, parasympathetic preganglionic axons, and visceral sensory axons |
| Chp 18: Neurotransmitters | Acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE) |
| Chp 18: All preganglionic axons release | elease ACh, which has an excitatory effect on the ganglionic cell |
| Chp 18: ACh-releasing | releasing cells are cholinergic neurons |
| Chp 18: Cholinergic receptors targets | target cell bind ACh |
| Chp 18:All postganglionic parasympathetic axons release ACh on the effector | Depending on the type of receptor on the effector, ACh from parasympathetic postganglionic axons may cause excitation or inhibition |
| Chp 18: Cholinergic receptors are | are muscarinic or nicotinic |
| Chp 18: dual innervation | receive input from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions |
| Chp 18: Antagonistic effects Parasympathetic activity | - slows heart; sympathetic activity speeds it up -increases intestinal motility; sympathetic activity decreases it - constricts pupil; sympathetic activity dilates it |
| Chp 18:Cooperative effects In male sexual response: | Parasympathetic activity leads to erection; sympathetic activity leads to ejaculation |
| Chp 18: CNS Control of Autonomic Function • Autonomic function is influenced by parts of the CNS: | -Hypothalamus -Brainstem -Spinal cord |
| Chp 18: Autonomic function is influenced by parts of the CNS Hypothalamus | ntegration center for autonomic nervous system; crucial in emotion; regulates visceral function |
| Chp 18: Autonomic function is influenced by parts of the CNS Brainstem Brainstem | Effects cardiovascular functions, digestive functions, eye’s pupil and lens shape |
| Chp 18 :Autonomic function is influenced by parts of the CNS Spinal cord | Important parasympathetic reflexes for defecation and urination |
| Chp 18: Neural tube "gives" | gives rise to central nervous system components of autonomic nervous system |
| Chp 18: Neural tubes parts of | Parts of hypothalamus, brainstem, spinal cord, white rami |
| Chp 18: Neural crest gives | gives rise to peripheral nervous system components of autonomic nervous system |
| Chp 18: Neural crest parts of | Autonomic ganglia, postganglionic axons, gray rami, adrenal medulla |
Created by:
Rodney C
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