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BIOL 1141 Exam 2

skeletal system, joints, muscular system, nervous system

Question	Answer
Functions of the skeletal system	1. supports the body (framework) 2. protects soft organs 3. allows movement 4. storage of minerals 5. blood cell production 6. provides shape to body 7. stores fat (in yellow bone marrow)
Classifications of bones	long, short, flat, irregular
sesamoid bone	special type of short bone that forms within a tendon or ligament, provides protection patella is the only pair of sesamoid bones in humans
sutural bone	extra small bones that form in the gaps as sutures of the skull fuse
axial skeleton	head, neck and trunk includes the cranium and facial bones, the hyoid bone, vertebral column and thoracic cage (thoracic vertebrae, ribs + sternum)
appendicular skeleton	pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicles), upper limb (humerus, radius, ulna), pelvic girdle (coxal bones), lower limb (femur, tibia, fibula)
compact bone	dense very few spaces, solid matrix, strong supports well but can be brittle under compressive forces forms much of the wall of the diaphysis
spongy bone	cancellous less dense, many spaces contains trabeculae and red bone marrow
red bone marrow	found in long bones in children only, contained in spaces of spongy bones (short, flat, irregular, round) in adults; forms blood cells
yellow bone marrow	primarily in adults, found in the medullary cavity of long bones adipose tissue,
periosteum	outer membrane that covers the bones dense connective tissue supplies blood vessels to bones osteoblasts are contained here
endosteum	loose connective tissue membrane lines the medullary cavity
medullary cavity	marrow cavity central hollow portion of the diaphysis
articular cartilage	hyaline cartilage that covers the part of the epiphysis that articulates with another bone; shiny, white, slippery tissue found at articulations
diaphysis	shaft/body of long bones
nutrient foramina	one or more holes in the shaft of a long bone where major blood vessels enter the bone
epiphysis	ends of long bones
epiphyseal plate	synchondrosis allows longitudinal bone growth, region of hyaline cartilage between the diaphysis and each epiphysis that allows for bone growth when the epiphyseal plate is fully ossified, growth is complete technically a joint
epiphyseal line	synostosis bone that replaces the epiphyseal plate (difficult to see)
osteon	cylindrical bone subunits that form bones
osteonic canal	hollow space within each osteon containing at least one artery, vein and nerve
osteocytes	mature bone cells that are in the matrix inside lacunae
lacunae	hollow spaces that contain osteocytes
lamellae	circular layers of bone tissue/matrix
canaliculi	tiny canals that connect nearby lacunae with one another allow for communication, sharing/passing of materials
perforating canal	two central canals that are connected blood vessels and nerves go from osteonic canal to osteonic canal
trabeculae	plates of bone that are interconnected found in spongy bone irregular lots of holes where blood vessels travel contain red bone marrow in spaces between trabeculae
ossification	bone hardening, bone formation
osteoblast	bone forming cell, immature gives rise to new bone incorporate calcium into the bone matrix
osteocyte	mature cells in the bone matrix
osteoclast	bone degrading cells phagocytic break down bone to release calcium, also clean up damaged bone tissue
bone extracellular matrix	contains both organic (1/3 of bone mass) and inorganic (2/3 of bone mass) materials
ground substance	protein and complex carbohydrates
collagen fibers	alternating orientation in lamellae prevents twisting of bones and gives tensile strength and flexibility
calcium phosphate salts	part of the inorganic bone matrix, provides resistance to compression
hydroxyapatite crystals	resistant to shear forces "grit" between the lamellae that prevents layers from grinding against each other
organic matrix	ground substances and collagen fibers
inorganic matrix	calcium phosphate salts and hydroxyapatite crystals
tensile strength	provided by ground matrix ability to withstand pulling
flexibility	provided by collagen fibers ability to bend
ability to withstand compression	provided by calcium phosphate
resistance to shear forces	provided by hydroxyapatite crystals
endochondral ossification	type of bone formation that begins with hyaline cartilage endochondral bones are cartilage models of bones, most bones form in this fashion
intramembranous ossification	type of bone formation where osteoblasts invade connective tissue membranes and begin laying down bone skull bones, clavicle, mandible
bone growth and remodeling	bones grow in circumference with age lose mass with age
sex-related differences in the skull and pelvis	females have smaller mandibles and mastoid processes, higher forehead, rounder facial areas. lighter and somewhat smaller bones female pelvis is larger/wider to accommodate a baby's skull, coccyx is more posterior, ischial spines are further apart
fontanelles	dense connective tissue membranes where the skull has not fused, allows for molding of the skull bones during delivery
molding (infant skull)	movement of fetal skull bones during delivery that allows the baby to pass through the pelvis
cartilage	cartilage in the ear, nose articular cartilage, covering ends of most bones at movable joints costal cartilage, connects ribs to sternum cartilage in the respiratory system (trachea, larynx, etc.) pubic symphysis vertebral discs meniscus of knee
functions of joints	movement/flexibility allow for growth hold body parts together allow bones to shift during childbirth
classifications of joints by range of movement	synarthroses, amphiarthroses, diarthroses
synarthroses	bones are held closely and tightly together with little or no movement example - some skull bones
amphiarthroses	allows some movement example - between vertebrae
diarthroses	freely movable examples - shoulder, elbow, finger
long bones	limbs/appendages. has a body/shaft ends articulate with other bones to form joints provide support act as levers
short bones	cubelike, lumpy, lots of surfaces. good at transferring force found in the wrist (carpals) or ankle (tarsals)
flat bones	generally flat sternum, ribs, cranial bones, scapula good for protection
irregular bones	doesn't fit into any of the categories oddly shaped bones like vertebrae, facial bones, pelvic bones
classification of joints by structure	fibrous (syndesmosis, suture, gomphosis); cartilagenous (symphysis, synchondrosis, synovial)
fibrous joints	bones do not move very much comprised of dense connective tissue types - syndesmosis, suture, gomphosis
cartilagenous joints	joints that are held together by cartilage types - symphysis, synchondrosis, synovial
syndesmosis	type of fibrous joint example - interosseous ligament, between distal ends of tibia and fibula, holds them together right above the ankle
suture	type of fibrous joint line between skull bones where bones have fused together bones are held together by sutural ligaments sometimes fully ossify in older adults
gomphosis	type of fibrous joint joint that holds teeth in sockets peg in socket construction joints are between the tooth and alveolus, includes periodontal ligament
symphysis	type of cartilagenous joint mostly fibrocartilage examples - pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs
synchondrosis	type of cartilagenous joint mostly hyaline cartilage examples - first rib/sternum (costal cartilage #1), epiphyseal plate
synovial joint	type of cartilagenous joint freely movable joints have a synovial cavity filled with synovial fluid articular cartilage covers the ends of each bone, spongy bone is deep to articular cartilage has a more complicated structure
structure of a synovial joint	joint capsule, synovial membrane, synovial cavity, synovial fluid, articular discs, bursae, tendon sheaths
joint capsule	holds bones together very strong outer layer of a joint, continuous with periosteum
synovial membrane	connective tissue membrane that lines the synovial cavity except where there is articular cartilage
synovial cavity	filled with synovial fluid surrounded by synovial membrane
synovial fluid	found in synovial cavities of joints acts as a lubricant, nourishes the articular cartilage has consistency of egg white, some viscosity, slippery
articular discs	additional pieces of hyaline cartilage that improve the "fit" between two bones and help stabilize the joint example - menisci in knee
bursae	fluid filled pockets or tubes of synovial membrane, provide cushion between bones and tendons, etc. example - shoulder looks like a little pillow
tendon sheaths	fluid filled pocket or tube of synovial membrane that provides cushion between bones and tendons, etc. example - bicep looks like a hot dog bun surrounding a tendon
hinge joints	type of synovial joint uniaxial movement example - elbow
ball and socket joints	type of synovial joint multiaxial movement example - hip, shoulder
actions of joints (18)	flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, elevation, depression, supination, pronation, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, eversion, inversion, protraction, retraction
flexion	reduces the angle between two body parts
extension	increases the angle between two body parts, returns flexed body parts to original position
hyperextension	increases the angle between two body parts beyond "normal"
abduction	movement away from the midline of the body
adduction	movement toward the midline of the body
circumduction	circular movement
medial rotation	rotate toward the midline
lateral rotation	rotate away from the midline
elevation	raise example - closing the mouth
depression	lower example - opening the mouth
supination	rotation of forearm so that palm faces front
pronation	rotation of forearm so that palm faces rear
dorsiflexion	flexing the foot up toward the shin
plantar flexion	pointing the toes downward
eversion	turn soles of feet outward
inversion	turn soles of feet inward
protraction	push forward example - underbite
retraction	push backward example - returning to normal from underbite position
functions of the muscular system	1. movement of the body (locomotion) and body parts 2. joint stabilization 3. posture and body support 4. heat generation
characteristics of muscles	contractility, excitability, extensibility, elasticity
contractility	the ability of muscle cells to shorten
excitability	the ability of muscle cells to respond to stimuli and generate action potentials
extensibility	the ability of muscle cells to stretch (can still contract while stretching)
elasticity	the ability of muscle cells to recoil back to original position after stretching
function of connective tissues in the muscular system	1. allows parts to move separately 2. very well supplied with blood vessels and pathways for nerves 3. protects, strengthens, bundles, attaches muscles 4. contributes to the elasticity of muscle
superficial fascia	hypodermis mainly adipose and loose connective tissue
deep fascia	mainly dense connective tissue contains many collagenous fibers also contains tendons and aponeuroses
tendon	straps or bands that attach muscles to bones
aponeurosis	broad sheets of connective tissue that attach muscles to other muscles or connect two parts of a muscle
epimysium	deep fascia that covers the muscles, extends beyond the muscles to form tendons and aponeuroses
perimysium	connective tissue that surrounds fascicles
fascicle	sections of muscle that contain groups of individual skeletal muscle cells
endomysium	surrounds each individual muscle cell/fiber houses blood vessels
origin of a muscle	point of direct attachment doesn't move
insertion of a muscle	point of indirect attachment moves toward the origin during the action
prime mover	muscle doing most of the work muscle that contracts
agonist	prime mover muscle doing most of the work muscle that contracts (ex, biceps brachii in forearm flexion)
synergists	muscles that help the prime mover by contracting and assisting with the action (ex, brachialis in forearm flexion)
fixator	muscles that contract and stabilize joints during an action
antagonists	muscles that oppose the agonist by contracting and relaxing prevent overcontraction (ex, triceps brachii in forearm flexion) allow for precision and smoothness of movement
skeletal muscle histology	mutiple nuclei, striations (A and I bands), peripheral nuclei, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm
myoblast	muscle forming cell
myofibril	striated muscle rods that extend the entire length of the cell and are perfectly aligned with one another
dark and light bands	A bands = dark I bands = light
myofilaments	small protein rods that make up the myofibrils three types - actin (thin), myosin (thick), titin (elastic)
sarcomere	structural and functional unit of myofibrils myofibrils are several sarcomeres linked end to end Z-line - Z-line = one sarcomere

actin/thin filament	type of myofilament twisted rod anchored by Z-discs and Z-lines
myosin/thick filament	bundles of golf-club shaped molecues 2 heads on flexible stalks anchored by M-lines
titin/elastic filament	springlike rods
Z-disc/Z-line	connection between two actin filaments
sliding filament model of muscle contraction	skeletal muscle fibers contract or shorten when thick and thin myofilament sarcomeres slide past each other, increasing the region of overlap
active contraction	requires energy
passive relaxation	does not require energy
role of calcium ions	gives the signal to skeletal muscle fibers to contract stored in the sarcoplasm reticulum When calcium ions leave the sarcoplasm reticulum, the muscle contracts when the calcium interacts with proteins
sarcoplasmic reticulum	storage center for calcium in the muscles, releases calcium when muscle needs to contract
t-tubule	deep invaginations of sarcolemma that conduct action potentials deep into muscle fiber helps coordinate cells as a unit
neuromuscular junction	communication junction between a neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber
motor neuron	nerve cell associated with a muscle
axon terminal	end of the motor neuron that transmits electrical signals/action potentials
synaptic cleft	space between the neuron and the skeletal muscle fiber
neurotransmitter	chemical signal molecules that are secreted by the axon terminal of a neuron, they cross the synaptic cleft and bind to a protein receptor, causing the skeletal muscle to generate its own action potential
acetylcholine	very common neurotransmitter associated with skeletal muscles
motor end plate	sarcolemma of the muscle fiber that is close to the axon terminals
action potential	electrical signal generated by a neuron
sequence of events at a neuromuscular junction	motor neuron generates action potential, releases neurotransmitter. proteins in muscle cell membrane receive neurotransmitter and this stimulates the muscle to contadct
motor unit	several muscle fibers that are controlled by a single motor neuron More fibers per neuron at less precise muscles.
functions of the nervous system	CNS - control/integration center PNS - receive sensory information, sends signals to rest of the body
structural divisions of the nervous system	central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
central nervous system	brain and spinal cord integration and command center
peripheral nervous system	nerves and ganglia communication lines between CNS and parts of the body
neuron	nerve cell sends electrical signals
cell body	contains the nucleus has 2 different types of processes - axons and dendrites
nerve processes	extensions of the cell body axon or dendrite
dendrite	short, highly branched 0-100's per cell receive information
axon	long, thin, not as highly branched only one per cell also called fibers
axon hillock	first part of the axon that comes off the cell body, where the action potential begins
axon collateral	branches of an axon
nerve fiber	axon
axon terminal	end of an axon that is in contact with other cells
structural classification of neurons	multipolar, pseudo-unipolar, bipolar
multipolar neurons	has many dendrites extending from the cell body, one axon located in CNS 99% of nerves are multipolar also called interneurons
pseudo-unipolar neurons	has spherical cell body, one axon, no dendrites PNS, afferent neurons
bipolar neurons	least common 1 axon and 1 dendrite extend from cell body PNS, afferent neurons
neuroglia	"nerve glue" smaller cells that aid neurons account for about 50% of brain mass outnumber neurons 50:1
functions of neuroglia	hold neurons together, provide nutrients, remove waste
characteristics of neuroglia	mitotic can become cancerous small
satellite cells	Glial cells found in the PNS ganglionic gliocytes surround neuron cell bodies and act as insulators
Schwann cells	neurolemmocytes glial cells found in the PNS surround axons provide electrical insulation wrap around larger axons to form a myelin sheath
neurilemma	another name for Schwann cells
myelin sheath	all of the Schwann cells that are wrapped around an axon
nodes of Ranvier	neurofibril nodes gaps in between Schwann cells/myelin sheath speeds up an action potential by allowing new action potentials to begin at each node to maintain more constant speed
myelinated fibers	contains multiple layers of Schwann cell membrane nerve fibers that have a myelin covering
unmyelinated fibers	nerve fibers that do not have a myelin covering
white matter	myelinated axons
gray matter	unmyelinated axons and cell bodies
oligodendrocytes	glial cells found in the CNS "several arms" cells with multiple arms that can myelinate several axons
astrocytes	glial cells found in the CNS star shaped most abundant CNS neuroglia transfer nutrients such as O2, CO2, amino acids, glucose, etc. form part of the blood-bran barrier
microglial cells	glial cells found in the CNS very small immune system cells
ependymal cells	glial cells found in the CNS line cerebrospinal fluid-filled cavities in the nervous system (brain and spinal cord) similar to epithelial cells in structure and function
blood-brain barrier	neuroglial cells that keep materials from moving freely into nerve tissue
action potential	electrical impulse that is transmitted by a nerve cell
synapse	point of contact between a neuron and another cell
presynaptic cell	the cell that initially transmits the action potential that releases neurotransmitters
postsynaptic cell	the cell that receives the neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell
synaptic cleft	space between two neurons
neurotransmitters	diffuse across the synaptic cleft from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron
convergence	when several presynaptic neurons bring a signal to one postsynaptic neuron
divergence	when one presynaptic neuron brings a signal to several postsynaptic neurons
sensory/afferent neurons	carry incoming information
motor/efferent neurons	control an effector (ex, skeletal muscle)
inter/association neurons	carry information from neuron to neuron
reflex arc	can be somatic or visceral happens when sensory input -> action bypasses the brain so that the action happens faster and without conscious thought examples - knee jerk, blinking, pupil dilation, vomiting
sensory receptors
effectors
somatic reflexes	reflexes that involve skeletal muscle or skin
visceral reflexes	reflexes that involve smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glands
monosynaptic	2 neurons, 1 synapse
polysynaptic	3 neurons, 2 synapses
calcium phosphate	storage form of calcium in the bones
hematopoiesis	blood cell production
percentage of bone mass that is mineral	65-70%
Number of bones in an adult, child	206, 270
articulation	joint
hypertrophy	increase in bone tissue
atrophy	loss of bone tissue
types of synovial joints	1. hinge 2. ball and socket 3. gliding 4. pivot 5. condyloid 6. saddle
characteristics of muscle tissue	1. long cylindrical cells called fibers 2. multinucleate with peripheral nuclei 3. striated 4. under mostly voluntary control 5. each fiber must be associated with a nerve (motor neuron) which provides the stimulus to contract
sarcolemma	plasma membrane of a muscle cell
sarcoplasm	cytoplasm of a muscle cell contains myofibrils
number of cranial nerves number of spinal nerves	12 31
myelin	lipid and protein molecules that form the Schwann cell membrane

Created by: pinklrt98

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