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A&PI-Ch2
Chemistry Comes Alive
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| anything that occupies space and has mass | matter |
| equal to actual amount of matter in an object, which remains constant wherever object is | mass |
| varies with gravity | weight |
| studies nature of matter, especially how its building blocks are put together and interact | science of chemistry |
| substance that does not flow perceptibly under moderate stress, has definite capacity for resisting forces (as compression or tension) which tend to deform it, and under ordinary conditions retains definite size and shape | solid |
| fluid that has no independent shape but has definite volume; does not expand indefinitely and that is only slightly compressible | liquid |
| fluid that has neither independent shape nor volume but tends to expand indefinitely | gas |
| matter __ in liquid, solid, or gaseous states | exists |
| compared with matter, energy is __ __ | less tangible |
| capacity to do work; may be stored, potential, or in action, kinetic | energy |
| energy has no mass, does not take up space, and can be measured only by | its effects on matter |
| greater the work done, more energy is __ doing it | used |
| energy of motion or movement, e.g., constant movement of atoms, or push given to swinging door that sets it into motion | kinetic energy |
| kinetic energy does work by __ objects, which in turn can do work by moving or pushing on other objects | moving |
| stored or inactive; capability to do work but is not presently doing so | potential energy |
| when potential energy is released, it becomes kinetic and so is capable of __ __ | doing work |
| energy is a topic of __ | physics |
| matter is the substance, and energy is the __ of the substance | mover |
| all living things are composed of __ and they all require __ to grow and function | matter; energy |
| release and use of energy by living systems gives us the elusive quality of __ | life |
| energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances | chemical energy |
| when __ __ occur that rearrange atoms of chemicals in certain way, potential energy is unleashed and becomes kinetic, or energy in action | chemical reactions |
| phosphorylated nucleotide; supplies energy for many biochemical cellular processes by undergoing enzymatic hydrolysis | adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
| some food energy is __ __ in bonds of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | temporarily captured |
| ATP bonds broken and store energy is released as needed to do __ __ | cellular work |
| most useful form of energy in the living systems because it is used to run almost all functional processes | chemical energy in form of ATP |
| results from movement of charged particles | electrical energy |
| atom, or group of atoms, that carries positive or negative electric charge as result of having lost, or gained, one or more electrons | ions |
| electrical currents are generated in body, when ions move __ or __ cell membranes | along; across |
| electrical currents of nervous system; used to transmit message from one part of body to another | nerve impulses |
| directly involved in moving matter | mechanical energy |
| energy that travels in waves, which vary in length | radiant or electromagnetic |
| entire range of wavelengths or frequencies of electromagnetic radiation extending from gamma rays to the longest radio waves and including visible light | electromagnetic spectrum |
| stimulates retinas of eyes, is important in vision | light energy |
| cause sunburn, but also stimulate body to make vitamin D | ultraviolet waves |
| energy conversions are quite __ | efficient |
| in energy conversions, some of initial energy supply is always unusable, "lost" to environment as | heat |
| all energy __ in body liberate heat | conversions |
| heat liberated in energy conversions helps to maintain human's relatively high __ __, which influences body functioning | body temperature |
| higher the body temp., the __ body's chemical reactions occur | faster |
| one of a limited number of unique varieties of matter that composes substances of all kinds; all matter is composed of these | elements |
| elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by __ __ methods | ordinary chemical |
| 92 of the current 112 elements occur | in nature |
| 20 of the current 112 elements are __ __ in particle accelerator devices | made artificially |
| make up about 96% of body weight | carbon, oxygen. hydrogen, nitrogen |
| arrangement of chemical elements based on the periodic law | periodic table |
| each element is composed of more or less __ __, or building blocks | identical particles |
| smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the properties of that element; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. | atoms |
| every element's atoms __ from those of all other elements | differ |
| every element's atoms give it its __ physical and chemical properties | unique |
| properties we can detect with our sense, or measure | physical |
| properties pertain to bonding behavior and account for the facts that iron rusts, animals can digest their food, and so on | chemical |
| way atoms interact with other atoms | bonding behavior |
| one or two letter symbol used to indicate an element; usually the first letter(s) of the element's name | atomic symbol |
| in a few cases the atomic symbol is taken from __ __ for element | Latin name |
| sodium is indicated by atomic symbol Na, from Latin word | natrium |
| word atom comes from Greek word meaning | indivisible |
| atoms are clusters of __ __ particles, called protons, neutrons, and electrons | even smaller |
| even though atom means indivisible in Greek, their __ __ can be divided with high-technology tools | subatomic particles |
| old idea of atom indivisibility is useful because atom loses __ __ of its element when it is split into its subatomic particles | unique properties |
| atom's __ particles differ in mass, electrical charge, and position in the atom | subatomic |
| contains protons and neutrons tightly bound together, in an atom | central nucleus |
| central nucleus of an atom is surrounded by __ __ | orbiting electrons |
| subatomic particle that bears a positive charge; located in the atomic nucleus | protons |
| uncharged subatomic particle; found in the atomic nucleus | neutrons |
| because an atom's nucleus contains protons and neutrons, it is __ charged overall | positively |
| heavy particles and have approx. same mass, designated as 1 atomic mass unit | protons and neutrons |
| unit of mass, used to express masses of atoms | atomic mass unit |
| because all of heavy subatomic particles are concentrated in nucleus, nucleus is __ | dense |
| nucleus accounts for nearly __ __ of atom | entire mass |
| negatively charged subatomic particle; orbits the atom's nucleus | electrons |
| electron bears negative charge equal in strength to | positive charge of the proton |
| only about 1/2000 mass of proton, and usually designated as 0 amu | mass of electron |
| all atoms are electrically neutral because number of protons is __ __ by its number of electrons | precisely balanced |
| in an atom, positive and negative charges cancel the effect of each other | electrically neutral |
| for any atom, the number of protons and electrons is always __ | equal |
| simplified and outdated model of atomic structure; depicts electrons moving around nucleus in fixed, generally circular orbits | planetary model |
| exact location of electrons can never be determined at particular times because they jump around following __ __ | unknown trajectories |
| regions around nucleus in which given electron or electron pair is likely to be found most of the time | orbitals |
| chemists talk about __ instead of __ | orbitals; orbits |
| more modern model of atomic structure; more useful in predicting chemical behavior of atoms | orbital model |
| orbital model depicts __ regions of greatest electron density by denser shading | probably |
| denser shading or haze; depicting greatest electron density in orbital model | electron cloud |
| simplest atom with one proton and one electron | hydrogen |
| most of the volume of an atom is __ __ | empty space |
| nearly all of an atom's mass is concentrated in __ __ | central nucleus |
| all __ are alike, regardless of atom considered | protons |
| composition of different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons determines | unique property of different elements |
| we need to know the atomic number, mass number, and atomic weight in order to | identify a particular element |
| number of protons in an atom's nucleus; written as subscript to left of its atomic symbol | atomic number |
| atomic number indirectly tells us the number of __ in the atom, because protons are always equal to this | electrons |
| electrons determine the __ behavior of atoms | chemical |
| sum of number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom; indicated by superscript to left of atomic symbol; allows deduction of total number and kinds of subatomic particles in any atom | mass number |
| mass of electrons is so small that it is __ | ignored |
| protons and neutrons have a mass of | 1 amu |
| mass number minus atomic number will identify the number of __ in an atom | neutrons |
| different atomic forms of same element, vary only in number of neutrons they contain; heavier species tend to be radioactive | isotopes |
| nearly all known elements have two or more __ __, called isotopes | structural variations |
| isotopes have same number of protons, and electrons, but __ in number of neutrons they contain | differ |
| most abundant isotope; has mass number of 1 | ¹H |
| unit of mass for expressing masses of atoms, molecules, or nuclear particles equal to 1/12 of the atomic mass of the most abundant carbon isotope ¹²C | atomic mass unit |
| Carbon has __ isotopes | several |
| each of these carbon isotopes have 6 protons, otherwise it would not be carbon | 12(superscript)C, 13(superscript)C, and 14(superscript)C |
| has 6 neutrons | 12(superscript)C |
| has 7 neutrons | 13(superscript)C |
| has 8 neutrons | 14(superscript)C |
| isotopes can also be written with mass number __ the symbol | following |
| average of relative weights, mass number, off all the isotopes of an element; takes into account relative abundance in nature | atomic weight |
| as a rule, atomic weight of element is approximately equal to mass number of its | most abundant isotope |
| heavier isotopes of many elements are unstable; their atoms decompose spontaneously into more stable forms; process of atomic decay | radioactivity |
| isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior | radioisotope |
| disintegration of radioactive nucleus may be compared to a(n) | tiny explosion |
| occurs when subatomic alpha (α) particles, beta (β) particles, or gamma (γ) rays are ejected from atomic nucleus | atomic decay / radioactivity |
| in radioisotopes, packets of 2protons + 2neutrons | alpha (α) particles |
| in radioisotopes, electron-like negative particles | beta (β) particles |
| in radioisotopes, electromagnetic energy | gamma (γ) rays |
| associate in one way to form protons and another way to form neutrons; dense nuclear particles are compose of even smaller particles calls | quarks |
| holds nuclear particles together; weaker in heavier isotopes leading to atomic disintegration | glue |
| when radioisotopes disintegrate, the element may | transform into a different element |
| used in clinical setting for diagnosis; localize and illuminate damaged or cancerous tissues; i.e.iodine-131 | most radioisotopes |
| radioisotope used to determine size and activity of thyroid gland, and to detect thyroid cancer | iodine-131 |
| use radioisotopes to probe workings of molecules deep within body | PET scan |
| all radioisotopes, regardless of purpose used, __ living tissue and lose their __ behavior | damage; radioactive |
| vary dramatically from hours to 1000s of years; time required for radioisotope to lose one-half of its activity is called | half-life |
| lowest penetrating power and is least damaging to living tissue | alpha emission |
| radioisotope second only to smoking as a cause of lung cancer; one source is decaying radon | inhaled alpha particles |
| results naturally from uranium in the earth | radon |
| radioisotope has greatest penetrating power | gamma emission |
| radium-26, cobalt-60, and certain other radioisotopes that decay by gamma emission are used to __ localized cancer | destroy |
| does not damage organic molecules directly; instead knocks electrons out of other atoms and sends them flying, leaving behind unstable molecules that do the damage | ionizing radiation |
| particle consisting of two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds | molecule |
| most atoms do not exist in __ __, but instead are chemically combined with other atoms to form molecules | free state |
| two or more atoms of same element combine, resulting substance called | molecule of that element |
| when 2 hydrogen atoms bond, the product is a molecule of __ __, written as H2(subscript)- | hydrogen gas |
| when 2 oxygen atoms combine, product is __ __, written as O(subscript)2 | oxygen gas |
| sulfur atoms commonly combine to form __ __ containing 8 sulfur atoms, written as S(subscript)8 | sulfur molecules |
| substance composed of 2 or more different elements, atoms of which are chemically united; chemically pure and all molecules are identical | compound |
| molecule is __ __ of compound that still has specific characteristics of the compound | molecule |
| properties of compounds are usually __ __ from those of atoms they contain | very different |
| impossible to tell what atoms are in a compound without analyzing it | chemically |
| substances composed of 2 or more components physically intermixed | mixtures |
| most matter in nature exists in form of mixtures, but there are only 3 basic types | solutions, colloids, and suspensions |
| homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids, or solids | solutions |
| means that mixture has exactly same composition or makeup throughout; sample taken from any part of mixture has same composition as sample taken from any other part | homogeneous |
| substance capable of or used in dissolving or dispersing one or more other substances; substance present in greatest amount; usually liquids | solvent |
| substance that is dissolved in a solution; substance present in smallest amount | solute |
| body's chief solvent | water |
| most solutions in body; contain gases, liquids, or solids dissolved in water; usually transparent or not visible to naked eye, do not scatter in light, and do not settle out; saline solution | true solution |
| solute of true solutions are __, usually in form of individual atoms and molecules | minute |
| if beam of light is passed through a true solution, you will not see | path of light |
| may be indicated in various ways, solutions are described in terms of their | concentration |
| percent of solute in total solution; referring to solute percentage | parts per 100 parts |
| milligrams per deciliter | mg/dl |
| way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution, indicated by italicized M | molarity |
| any element or compound is = to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams | mole |
| mass of one mole of a chemical compound equal in grams to the compound's molecular weight | gram molecular weight |
| __ __ of a chemical substance is one gram molecular weight of substance in 1L of solution | one-molar solution |
| one mole of any substance always contains exactly same number of __ __ | solute particles |
| number of molecules in one mole of any substance, 6.02 × 10^23 | Avogadro's number |
| because solute concentrations in body fluids tend to be quite low, those values are usually reported in terms of | millimoles (m[italicized]M; 1/1000 mole) |
| heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. | colloids |
| another term for colloids is | emulsions |
| colloids often appear transparent or __ and although solute particles are larger than in true solutions, they still do not __ __ | milky; settle out |
| colloid solute particles do __ __ so path of light beam is visible when shone through colloid mixture | scatter light |
| reversible change of a colloid from a fluid (sol) to a more solid (gel) state | sol-gel transformation |
| colloids have ability to undergo | sol-gel transformations |
| sol0gel transformations underlie many important cells activities, such as cell division and changes in cell shape; semifluid material in living cells, is colloid | cytosol |
| heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out; sand or blood are examples | suspensions |
| living material is most __ __ of all, since it contains all three kinds of mixtures interacting with one another | complex mixture |
| chief difference btwn mixtures and compounds is that no __ __ occurs btwn components of mixture; properties of atoms and molecules not changed when become part of mixture; only physically intermixed | chemical bonding |
| depending on mixture, components can be separated by __ means; compounds can only be separated into constituents atoms by __ means (breaking bonds) | physical; chemical |
| some mixtures are homogeneous, and other are heterogeneous; all compounds are __ | heterogeneous |
| not a physical structure; instead energy relationship between electrons of reacting atoms, and is made or broken in less than trillionth of second | chemical bond |
| regions of space that consecutively surround atomic nucleus, where electrons form electron cloud | electron shell |
| actual number of electron shells __ in given atom depends on number of electrons that atom has | occupied |
| each electron shell contains __ __ __ orbitals | one or more |
| each electron shell represents a different energy level, because this prompts you to think of electrons as particles with certain amount of | potential energy |
| electron shell and energy level are terms __ __ | used interchangeably |
| potential energy an electron has depends on energy level that | electron occupies |
| attraction btwn positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons is greatest | closer to nucleus |
| electrons farthest from nucleus have __ potential energy and are __ likely to interact chemically with other atoms | greatest; most |
| it takes electrons closer to nucleus more energy to overcome __ __ and reach more distant energy levels | nuclear attraction |
| electrons farther from nucleus are least __ __ by own atomic nucleus and most easily influenced by other atoms and molecules | tightly held |
| shell immediately surrounding nucleus that accommodates only 2 electrons | Shell1 |
| hold max. of 8 electrons | Shell2 |
| has room for 18 electrons | Shell3 |
| shell 1 fills __ before electrons appear in shell2 | completely |
| when considering __ __, only electrons in atom's outermost energy level are important | bonding behavior |
| when outermost energy level of atom is filled to capacity, or contains 8 electrons, the atom is stable and considered | chemically inert |
| lacking the power to move; deficient in active properties; unreactive | inert |
| any of a group of rare gases that include helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and sometimes radon and that exhibit great stability and extremely low reaction rates | noble gases |
| atoms in which electrons in outermost energy level contain fewer than 8 electron tend to __, __, or __ electrons with other atoms to achieve stability | gain; lose; share |
| outermost electron shell (energy level) of an atom that contains electrons; that portion of it containing electrons that are chemically reactive | valence shell |
| number of electrons that can participate in bonding is __ to 8 | limited |
| tendency of atoms to interact in such a way that they have eight electrons in their valence shell; key to chemical reactivity | octet rule |
| three major types of chemical bonds that result from attractive force btwn atoms | ionic, covalent, and hydrogen |
| atom with a positive or negative electric charge | ion |
| chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms | ionic bond |
| atom that gains one or more electrons, in ionic bonds, | electron acceptor |
| ion carrying one or more negative charges and therefore attracted to a positive pole; electron acceptor acquires net negative charge | anion |
| atom that loses electron, in ionic bonds, | electron donor |
| ion with a positive charge; electron donor acquires net positive charge | cation |
| both are formed whenever electron transfer btwn atoms occurs | anion and cation |
| since opposite charges attract, anions and cations tend to stay close together, resulting in __ bond | ionic |
| commonly formed btwn atoms with one or two valence shell electrons and atoms with seven valence shell electrons | ionic bonds |
| most fall in chemical category called salts | ionic compounds |
| large array of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds | crystals |
| in dry state, salts do not exist as __ __ instead they form crystals | individual molecules |
| electrons do not have to be completely transferred for atoms to achieve | stability |
| chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms | covalent bond |
| in covalent bonds, the shared electron pair orbits around the molecule as a(n) __, satisfying stability needs of each atom | whole |
| when two atoms share one pair of electrons it forms | single covalent bond |
| when atoms share 2 or 3 electron pairs it results in | double or triple covalent bonds |
| electrically balanced molecules | nonpolar molecules |
| nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms | polar molecules |
| helps determine what other molecules or atoms it can interact with | molecule shape |
| having a tendency to attract electrons; small atoms, with 6 or 7 valance shell electrons, are electron-hungry and attract electrons very strongly | electronegativity |
| most atoms with only 1 or 2 valence shell electrons have a tendency to release electrons; electron-attracting ability so low they usually lose their valance shell electrons to other atoms | electropositive |
| because it is linear and symmetrical, electron-pulling ability of one oxygen atom offsets that of the other; result in shared electrons that orbit entire molecule making it nonpolar compound | carbon dioxide |
| nonsymmetrical molecules that contain electrically unbalanced atoms; example is water molecule | dipole |
| orient themselves toward other dipoles or toward charged particles, such as ions and some proteins, and play essential roles in chemical reactions in body cells | polar molecules |
| more like attraction than true bonds; common btwn dipoles; responsible for tendency of water molecules to cling together and form films, or surface tension; too weak for bind atoms together to form molecules, but important intramolecular bonds | hydrogen bond |
| attractive force exerted upon the surface molecules of a liquid by the molecules beneath that tends to draw the surface molecules into the bulk of the liquid and makes the liquid assume the shape having the least surface area | surface tension |
| hold different parts of single larger molecule in specific 3D shape | hydrogen intramolecular bond |
| some biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, have numerous hydrogen bonds that help __ and __ their structures | maintain; stabilize |
| process in which molecules are formed, changed, or broken down | chemical reaction |
| chemical reactions in symbolic form; like sentence describing what happens in a reaction | chemical equations |
| in chemical equations, number written in __ indicates that the atoms are joined by chemical bonds | subscript |
| in chemical equations, number written as __ denotes number of unjoined atoms or molecules | prefix |
| substance taking part in a chemical reaction | reactant |
| substance produced from one or more other substances as a result of chemical change | product |
| chemical equations include number and kind of __ substances, reactants | reacting |
| the relative proportion of each reactant and product | balanced equation |
| chemical equations include chemical compositions of __ | products |
| chemical formula for a compound existing as discrete molecules that gives the total number of atoms of each element in a molecule | molecular formula |
| chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones | synthesis or combination reaction |
| synthesis reactions always involve bond __ | formation |
| are basis of constructive, or anabolic, activities in body cells; such as joining small molecules called amino acids into large protein molecules; conspicuous in rapidly growing tissue | synthesis reactions |
| chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms; underlie all degredative, or catabolic, processes in body cells | decomposition reaction |
| chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms; involve both synthesis and decomposition reactions | displacement or exchange reactions |
| reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance; are decomposition reactions and also special type of exchange reaction | oxidation-reduction reaction |
| oxidation-reduction reaction is also called | redox reaction |
| __ reaction, in redox reactions, are basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy | decomposition |
| __ reaction, in redox reactions, are special because electrons are exchanged btwn reactants | exchange |
| the electron donor, in redox reactions, is said to be | oxidized |
| change (a compound) by increasing the proportion of the electronegative part or change (an element or ion) from a lower to a higher positive valence : remove one or more electrons from (an atom, ion, or molecule) | oxidize |
| the electron acceptor, in redox reactions, is said to become | reduced |
| to change (an element or ion) from a higher to a lower oxidation state | reduce |
| redox reactions occur when ionic compounds are | formed |
| not all redox reactions involve __ __ of electrons; some simply change pattern of __ __ in covalent bond | complete transfer; electron sharing |
| in redox reactions, electrons are either __ __, as H is removed and takes its electron with it, or __, as shared electrons spend more time in vicinity of very electronegative oxygen atom | lost entirely; relatively |
| importance of redox reactions in living systems is seen in equation for | cellular respiration |
| chemical reaction that releases energy; yield products with less energy than initial reactants along with energy that can be harvested for other uses | exergonic reaction |
| because chemical bonds represent store chemical energy, all chemical reactions ultimately result in net __ or __ of energy | absorption; release |
| with few exceptions, __ and __ reactions are exergonic reactions | catabolic; redox |
| chemical reaction that absorbs energy; contain more potential energy in their chemical bonds than in their reactants | endergonic reaction |
| __ reactions are typically energy-absorbing endergonic reactions; energy released when fuel molecules brown down (oxidized) captured in ATP molecules and then used to synthesize complex biological molecules body needs to sustain life | anabolic |
| theoretically, all chemical reactions are | reversible |
| reversibility of a reaction, in a chemical equation, is represented by a(n) | double arrow |
| when double arrows, in chemical equations, differ in length, __ __ indicated major direction in which reaction proceeds | longer arrow |
| when double arrows, in chemical equations, are of equal length neither forward or reverse reaction is | dominant |
| state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed | chemical equilibrium |
| once chemical equilibrium is achieved, there is no further __ __ in amounts of reactants and products unless more of either are added to the mix | net change |
| in chemical equilibrium, product molecules are still __ and __ __, but balance established remains unchanged | formed; broken down |
| many biological reactions show little tendency to go in reverse direction, for all practical purposes they are considered | irreversible |
| chemical reactions that release energy will not go in __ __ unless energy is put back into the system | opposite direction |
| the breakdown of glucose via reactions of cellular respiration will __ go in reverse | never |
| if product of reaction is continuously removed from reaction site, it is unavailable to take part in __ __; this occurs when CO2 released during glucose breakdown leaves cells, enters blood, and eventually removed from body bu lungs | reverse reaction |
| for atoms and molecules to react chemically, they must __ with enough force to overcome repulsion btwn their electrons | collide |
| interaction btwn valence shell electrons cannot occur __ __ | long distance |
| depends on how fast particles are moving | force of collision |
| solid, forceful collisions btwn rapidly moving particles in which valence shells __ are much more likely to cause reactions than are collision in which particles __ __ each other | overlap; lightly graze |
| increasing temperature of substance increases __ __ of its particles and __ of their collisions | kinetic energy; force |
| chemical reactions proceed __ __ at higher temperatures | more quickly |
| chemical reactions progress most rapidly when __ __ are present in high numbers, because chance of __ __ is greater | reacting particles; successful collision |
| smaller the reacting particle, the __ a chemical reaction goes at a given temperature | faster |
| substance that increases rate of chemical reaction without itself becoming chemically changed or part of the product | catalyst |
| any of numerous complex proteins produced by living cells, and catalyze specific biochemical reactions at body temperatures | enzymes |
| term enzyme describes a(n) | biological catalyst |
| study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter; organic or inorganic | biochemistry |
| any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds | organic compounds |
| all organic compounds are __ bonded molecules, and many are large | covalently |
| chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases | inorganic compounds |
| organic and inorganic compounds are __ for life | essential |
| most abundant and important inorganic compound in living material; makes up 60-80% of all living things | water |
| water absorbs and releases large amount of __ before changing appreciably in temperature | heat |
| water's __ __ __ prevents sudden changes in temperature caused by external factors or internal conditions that release heat rapidly | high heat capacity |
| as a part of blood, water redistributes heat among body tissues, ensuring __ __ | temperature homeostasis |
| water changes from a liquid to a gas when it | evaporates or vaporizes |
| requires that large amounts of heat be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds that hold water molecules together | water vaporization |
| water is often called the | universal solvent |
| biological molecules do not react chemically unless they are in __, and virtually all chemical reactions occurring in the body depend on water's __ properties | solution; solvent |
| because water molecules are __, they orient themselves with their slightly negative ends toward positive ends of solutes, and vice versa, first attracting solute molecules then surrounding | polar |
| explains why ionic compounds and other small reactive molecules dissociate in water forming a true solution | polarity of water |
| process by which chemical combination breaks up into simpler constituents; especially, one that results from action of energy (heat) on gas or of solvent on dissolved substance | dissociation |
| layers of water molecules around large charged molecules, shielding them from effects of other charged substances in vicinity and preventing them from settling out of solution | hydration layers |
| protein-water mixtures; such as blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid | biological colloids |
| water is body's major __ __ because it is such an excellent solvent | transportation medium |
| specialized molecules that lubricate the body, mucus, also use water as their | dissolving medium |
| water is a(n) __ __ in many chemical reactions | important reactant |
| chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion of water | hydrolysis reactions |
| process by which a large molecule is synthesized by removing water and covalently bonding smaller molecules together | dehydration synthesis |
| water forms a(n) __ __ around certain body organ, helping protect them from physical trauma | resilient cushion |
| cushion, reactivity, polarity, high heat capacity, and high heat vaporization are the reasons that | water is so vital to life |
| ionic compound containing cations other than H+, and anions other than hydroxyl ion (OH-) | salt |
| when salts are dissolved in water they __ into their component ions | dissociate |
| chemical substances, such as salts, acids, and bases, that ionize and dissociate in water and are capable of conducting an electrical current | electrolytes |
| __ __ are electrolytes | all ions |
| groups of atoms that bear an overall charge, such as sulfate, are called | polyatomic ions |
| most plentiful salts in the body are __ __ that make bones and teeth hard | calcium phosphates |
| NaCl, CaCO3 (calcium carbonate), and KCl (potassium chloride) are salts that are | commonly found in the body |
| salts in their __ __ play vital roles in body function | ionized forms |
| electrolyte properties are essential for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction | sodium and potassium |
| forms part of hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen within RBCs | ionic iron |
| important to activity of some enzymes | ionic zinc and copper |
| maintaining proper ionic balance in body fluids is one of crucial hemostatic roles of the | kidneys |
| acids and bases are __; ionizing and dissociating in water, and can then conduct electrical currents | electrolytes |
| substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; proton donor; have sour taste and can react with (dissolve) many metals, and burn through substances | acid |
| hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton) | hydrogen ions |
| substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid | proton donor |
| concentration of protons determines the __ of a solution | acidity |
| anions have __ __ on acidity | little effect |
| molecular formula for acids have hydrogen __ __ | written first |
| substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor; feel slippery and have bitter taste | base |
| substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; commonly referred to as a base | proton acceptor |
| ionic compound of hydroxide with an element or group; magnesium hydroxide (mild of magnesia) and sodium hydroxide (lye) | hydroxides |
| like acids, hydroxides dissociate when __ in water, but hydroxl ions and cations are __ | dissolved; liberated |
| important base in body, abundant in blood | bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) |
| common waste product of protein breakdown in body, also a base; has one pair of unshared electrons that strongly attracts protons | ammonia (NH3) |
| when ammonia accepts a proton it becomes | ammonium ion |
| measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution | pH units |
| having pH of less than 7; more hydrogen ion in a solution, the more | acidic the solution |
| greater concentration of hydroxl ions the more __, or alkaline | basic |
| of, relating to, containing, or having the properties of an alkali or alkali metal; having pH of more than 7 | alkaline |
| pH scale is __, which means each successive change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration | logarithmic |
| is thus defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter, or -log[H+] | pH of a solution |
| neither acid nor basic, neither acid nor alkaline; having pH value of 7.0; solution contains both hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions at the same concentration 1.00×107 (pH - pOH) | neutral |
| absolutely pure __ __ has a pH of 7 | distilled water |
| displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt | neutralization reaction |
| when acids and bases are mixed they react with one another in displacement reactions to forms __ and __ | water; salt |
| chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions | buffer |
| in __ __, acids and bases are extremely damaging to living tissue | high concentrations |
| homeostasis of __ __ is regulated by kidneys and lungs, and by buffers | acid-base balance |
| buffers resist abrupt and large __ in pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions when pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions when pH drops | swings |
| normally varies within a narrow range of a pH of 7.35 to 7.45 | blood |
| acidity of a solution reflects __ __ hydrogen ions, not those still bound to anions | only free |
| acids that dissociate completely and irreversibly in water; they can dramatically change pH of a solution; hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid are examples | strong acids |
| acids that do not dissociate completely, like carbonic acid and acetic acid; do not affect pH | weak acids |
| weak acids dissociate in a(n) __ __ and molecules of intact acid are in dynamic equilibrium with dissociated ions, allowing them to play important roles in __ __ system of body | predictable way; chemical buffer |
| bases that dissociate easily in water and quickly tie up H+; e.g. hydroxides | strong base |
| maintains pH homeostasis of blood; major blood buffer; resists changes in blood pH by shift to right or left as H+ ions are added to or removed from blood | carbonic acid-bicarbonate system |
| molecules that are unique to living systems and all contain carbon; interactions with other molecules typically involve only their functional groups | organic compounds |
| carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are both __ compounds | inorganic |
| no other small atom atom is as precisely __ as carbon | electroneutral |
| never loses/gains electrons, only shares; forms covalent bonds w/other elements, as well as like atoms with its 4 valence share electrons; helps form long chain-like molecules, ring structures, and other structures uniquely suited | carbon |
| chain-like molecules are common in | fats |
| ring structures are typical of __ and __ | carbohydrates; steroids |
| substance of high molecular weight with long, chain-like molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units (monomers), joined together by dehydration synthesis | polymers |
| chemical compound that can undergo polymerization | monomer |
| H+ atom is removed from 1 monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from monomer to be joined with; covalent bond unites monomers, water molecule is released; removal of water molecule at bond site occurs each time monomer added to polymer chain | polymerization |
| organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes starches, sugars, cellulose; represent 1-2% of cell mass; hydrogen and oxygen atoms occur in same 2:1 ratio | carbohydrate |
| carbohydrate can be classified according to __ and __ | size; solution |
| literally, one sugar; building block of carbohydrates; e.g., glucose; single-chain or single-ring structures containing from 3-7 carbon atoms; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen atoms occur in ration 1:2:1 | monosaccharide |
| larger the carbohydrate molecule, the less __ in water | soluble |
| C6H12O6 | glucose |
| C5H10O5 | ribose |
| monosaccharides are named generically according to number of __ __ they contain | carbon atoms |
| most important monosaccharides in body are | pentose and hexose |
| five-carbon | pentose |
| six-carbon | hexose |
| one of two or more substances that has the same molecular formula but with its atoms arranged differently | isomer |
| isomers of glucose | galactose and fructose |
| literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose; formed when two monosaccharides join by dehydration synthesis | disaccharide |
| important disaccharides in the diet | sucrose, lactose, maltose |
| glucose + fructose; cane or table sugar | sucrose |
| glucose + galactose; found in milk | lactose |
| glucose + glucose; called malt sugar | maltose |
| disaccharides are too large to pass through __ __, and must be digested to simple sugar units to be absorbed by digestive tract into blood (hydrolysis) | cell membranes |
| chemical process of decomposition involving the splitting of a bond and the addition of the hydrogen cation and the hydroxide anion of water | hydrolysis |
| literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen; large fairly insoluble molecules; ideal storage products | polysaccharide |
| only 2 polysaccharides are of major importance to body | starch and glycogen |
| storage carbohydrate formed by plants | starch |
| storage carbohydrate of animal tissues; stored in skeletal muscles and liver | glycogen |
| unable to digest; provides bulk that helps moves feces through colon | cellulose |
| provide a ready, easily used source of cellular food | major function of carbohydrates |
| organic compound formed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples are fats and cholesterol; insoluble in water but dissolves readily in others of like and inorganic solvents; proportions of oxygen much lower | lipid |
| found in some of more complex lipids | phosphorus |
| include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids and eicosanoids | lipids |
| fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; body's most concentrated source of energy fuel; also known as neutral fats; found in subcutaneous tissue and around organs | triglyceride |
| triglycerides are also called | neutral fats |
| fatty acids and glycerol are the building blocks that | compose triglycerides |
| linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with organic acid group at one end; constituent of fat | fatty acids |
| triglycerides have 3:1 ration of __ acids to __ | fatty; glycerol |
| modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats | glycerol |
| involves attaching 3 fatty acid chains to single glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis; results in E-shaped molecule | fat synthesis |
| glycerol backbone is __ in all triglycerides | same |
| fatty acid chains __, resulting in different kinds of fats and oils | vary |
| hydrocarbon chains make triglycerides __ molecules | nonpolar |
| oil & water do not mix because __ & __ molecules do not interact | polar; nonpolar |
| triglycerides provide body's most efficient and compact form of __ __, and when they are oxidized, they yield large amount of __ | stored energy; energy |
| triglycerides are found mainly __ __ | beneath skin |
| length of triglyceride's fatty acid chains and their degree of saturation with H atoms determine how __ molecule is at given temperature | solid |
| fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds btwn carbon atoms; chains are straight and, at room temp, molecules are packed closely together, forming solid | saturated |
| fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds btwn carbons atoms; monounsaturated and polyunsaturated | unsaturated |
| triglycerides with short fatty acid chain are __ and typical of __ __ | oils; plant lipids |
| oils that have been solidified by additional of H atoms at site of double carbon bonds | trans fats |
| found naturally in cold-water fish; appear to decrease risk of heart disease and some inflammatory diseases | omega-3 fatty acids |
| Contain C, H, and O | lipid |
| modified lipid, contains phosphorus; diglycerides with phosphorus-containing group (polar) and 2 rather than 3, fatty acid chains (nonpolar) | phospholipid |
| phospholipids are found in __ membranes and __ tissue | cell; nervous |
| group of chemical substances, including certain hormones and cholesterol; fat soluble; contain little oxygen | steroids |
| unique characteristic of phosphorus-containing (head) being polar and attracting other polar particles, such as water or ions, allows them to be used as chief material for | building cellular membranes |
| steroids are basically __ molecules made of four __ hydrocarbon rings | flat; interlocking |
| single most important molecule in steroid chemistry; steroid alcohol C27H45OH present in animal cells and body fluids | cholesterol |
| cholesterol __ membrane fluidity, | regulates |
| cholesterol may cause __ | arteriosclerosis |
| cholesterol functions as __ molecule in various metabolic pathways, and as __ of LDL | precursor; constituent |
| cholesterol is __ __ for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts | raw material |
| steroid hormones are present in body in __ quantities, and are __ for homeostasis | small; vital |
| diverse lipids, chiefly derived from 20-carbon fatty acid (arachidonic acid) found in all cell membranes | eicosanoids |
| most important of eicosanoids; play roles in blood clotting, regulation of blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions | prostaglandins |
| synthesis and inflammatory actions of prostaglandins are blocked by | NSAIDs and COX inhibitors |
| full set of proteins made by body | proteome |
| complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, many contain phosphorus and sulfur as well; composes 10–30% of cell mass; have most varied functions of any molecule in body | proteins |
| organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of protein; 20 common types | amino acids |
| amino acids have two important functional groups | amine (--NH2) and organic acid group (--COOH) |
| all amino acids are identical except for a single group of atoms | R group |
| R group makes each amino acid __ __ | chemically unique |
| bond joining amine group of 1 amino acid to acid carboxyl group of a 2nd amino acid w/loss of water molecule | peptide bond |
| large, complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits | macromolecules |
| two amino acids | dipeptide |
| three amino acids | tripeptide |
| ten or more amino acids | polypeptide |
| polypeptides containing more than 50 amino acids are called __, and most are __ containing from 100 to over 10,000 amino acids | proteins; macromolecules |
| 20 amino acids can be considered a 20-letter __, used in specific combinations to form "words" or __ | alphabet; proteins |
| changes in kinds/positions of amino acids can yield proteins with different __ or those that are __ | functions; nonfunctional |
| all proteins are constructed from __ __ of 20 common amino acids | different combinations |
| linear sequence of amino acids composing polypeptide chain; resembles strand of amino acid "beads"; backbone of molecule | primary structure of protein |
| proteins do not normally exist as simple, linear amino acids, instead twisting/bending upon themselves to form more complex __ __ | secondary structure |
| most common type of 2ndary structure of amino acid chain in proteins; resembles coils of telephone cord or slinky toy | alpha (α)-helix |
| alpha (α)-helix formed by coiling of __ __ and stabilized by hydrogen bonds formed btwn NH and CO groups in amino acids in __ __ which are approx 4 amino acids apart | primary chain; primary chain |
| hydrogen bonds in alpha (α)-helix always link __ __ of same chain together | different parts |
| 2ndary structure; primary polypeptide chains do not coil, but are linked side by side by hydrogen bonds to formed a pleated, ribbon-like structure; resembles accordion | beta (β)-pleated sheet |
| in beta (β)-pleated sheet, H bonds may link __ polypeptides chains as well as different parts of __ __ that has folded back on itself | different; different parts |
| single polypeptide chain may exhibit both types of __ __ at various places along its length | secondary structures |
| next higher level of complexity in proteins, which is superimposed on 2ndary structure | tertiary structure |
| tertiary structure achieved when alpha (α)-helical or (β)-pleated regions of polypeptide chain | fold upon one another |
| tertiary structure achieved, in proteins, when (α)-helical or (β)-pleated regions create compact, ball-like molecule called | globular molecule |
| composed of compactly folded polypeptide chains arranged in a spherical form | globular |
| globular is maintained by __ and __ bonds btwn amino acids that are often far apart in __ chain | covalent; hydrogen; primary |
| when two or more polypeptide chains aggregate in regular manner to form complex protein, protein has | quaternary structure |
| consisting of, containing, or being an atom bonded to four other atoms | quaternary |
| protein that transports thyroid hormone in blood and exhibits quaternary structural level | prealbumin |
| arterial blood pH is | 7.4 |
| venous blood pH is | 7.35 |
| extended and strand-like; exhibit only 2ndary structure, but most have tertiary/quaternary structure as well | fibrous proteins |
| overall structure of protein determines __ function | biological |
| proteins are classified according to overall appearance and shape as | fibrous or globular |
| most abundant protein in body; fibrous; composite of helical tropocollagen molecules, packed together side by side to form strong rope-like structure | collagen |
| fibrous proteins are __ in water, very stable, ideal for __ support and tensile strength to body's tissues | insoluble; mechanical |
| __ proteins incl keratin, elastin, and certain contractile proteins of muscle | fibrous |
| fibrous proteins are chief building materials of body, which are also known as | structural proteins |
| compact, spherical proteins that have at least tertiary structure; water-soluble, chemically active molecules, and play crucial role in virtually all biological process | globular proteins |
| globular proteins are also known as | functional proteins |
| antibodies, protein-based hormones regulate growth/development, and enzymes are catalysts that oversee just about every chemical reaction in body | globular/functional proteins |
| depends on specific 3-D structure, and intramolecular bonds, particularly hydrogen bonds, are important in maintaining that structure | activity of protein |
| individual proteins vary in their __ to environmental conditions, __ begin to break when pH drops or temperature rises above physiological levels, causing proteins to denature | sensitivity; H-bonds |
| when pH/temperature levels rise above physiological levels, causing proteins to unfold and lose their specific 3-D shape, they are said to be | denatured |
| if protein structure is damaged beyond repair it is said to be | irreversibly denatured |
| can no longer perform physiological roles because their function depends on presence of specific arrangements of active sites on their surface, when | globular proteins are denatured |
| region, especially of biologically active protein (as an enzyme), where catalytic activity takes place and whose shape permits binding only of a specific reactant molecule | active site |
| proteins that are intimately involved in normal functioning of all cells | chaperones and enzymes |
| any of a class of globular proteins (as heat shock proteins) that facilitate proper folding of proteins by binding to and stabilizing unfolded or partially folded proteins | molecular chaperone |
| folding process of proteins requires help of molecular chaperones to ensure folding is | quick and accurate |
| specific molecular chaperones prevent accidental, premature, or incorrect __ of polypeptide chains or their __ with other polypeptides | folding; association |
| specific molecular chaperones __ desired folding and association process | aid |
| specific molecular chaperones help __ proteins and certain metal ions (copper, zinc, iron) across cell membranes | translocate |
| specific molecular chaperones promote __ of dmgd or denatured proteins | breakdown |
| specific molecular chaperones interact w/other cells to __ __ response to diseased cells in body | trigger immune |
| pg 51 | heat shock proteins (hsp) |
| polar covalent bond | bond in which electrons are NOT shared equally |
| ionic bond | bond in which electrons are completely lost or gained by the atoms involved |
| nonpolar covalent bond | bond in which electrons are equally shared |
| hydrogen bond | type of bond important in tying different parts of same molecule together into 3D structure |
| cation | electrically charged particle from loss of an electron |
| neutron | neutral subatomic particle |
| atom | smallest particle of an element that retains is properties |
| molecule | smallest particle of a compound that still retains its properties |
| anion | electrically charged particle from gain of an electron |
| legs moving the pedals of a bicycle | mechanical energy |
| bonds of ATP are broken, energy is released to do cellular work | chemical energy |
| energy that travels in waves; part of the electromagnetic spectrum | radiant energy |
| represented by the flow of charged particles along a conductor or the flow of ions across a membrane | electrical energy |
| sex hormones | steroids |
| regulate inflammation | eicosanoids |
| integral to cell membranes | phospholipids |
| used as energy stores & for insulation | triglycerides |
| linear sequence of amino acids comprising a protein chain | primary structure |
| composed of alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets | 2ndary structure |
| alpha and beta regions fold upon each other | tertiary structure |
| two or more proteins aggregated together | quaternary structure |
| synthesis reaction | A + B → AB |
| decomposition | AB → A + B |
| exchange reaction | AB + C → AC + B |
| reversible reaction | A + B ←→ AB |
| saturated | lipid with all single bonds |
| monounsaturated | lipid w/one double bond |
| polyunsaturated | lipid w/more than one double bond |
| Bad fats | trans fats |
| good fats | Omega-3 fats |
| ninety-six percent of body weight is made up of | only 4 elements |
| colloid can undergo __ __, whereas a suspension cannot | sol-gel transformation |
| both colloids and suspensions are __ solutions | homogenous |
| chemical bonds are | energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms |
| valance shell is | outermost energy shell of an atom |
| ionic bond is a chemical bond formed by | transfer of one/more electrons from valance shell of one atom to that of other |
| polar molecule is formed when | electrons shared between two/more electrons in covalent bond are unequally shared |
| dipole molecules are | not electrically balanced |
| anabolism is the process by which | atoms or molecules combine to form larger more complex molecules |
| reactions which release energy are | exergonic reactions |
| catabolic reactions involve | breaking down of large complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules & atoms |
| chemical reactions take place faster if | reacting particles are present in a high number |
| factor would speed up the rate of a chemical reaction | high concentration of reagents |
| hydrolysis | molecule of water is added for each bond broken |
| electrolytes are | ions, which are capable of conducting an electrical current |
| pH is a concentration unit used to measure the concentration of | hydrogen ions in a solution |
| chaperonins are enzymes that | aid in desired folding of proteins |
| prostaglandins are | type of eicosanoids, which are diverse lipids found in the cell membrane |
| function of microRNA (miRNA) is | control genetic expressions by turning some genes on & others off, thus controlling genetic expression |
| function of messenger RNA (mRNA) is | to transfer genetic code to ribosome for protein synthesis |
| Sugars contain | CHO |
| organic compound is analyzed, & it has twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms; this compound is most likely a(n) | carbohydrate |
| carbohydrates have CHO with | 1:2:1 ratio |
| catabolic reactions involve | release of energy |
| buffers tend to prevent dramatic changes in the pH when __ __ are added to a solution | protons donors |
| buffers accept or release __ | protons |
| exergonic | chemical reactions that release energy |
| ionic bonds form between two atoms when | one atom donates an electron to the other atom |
| building blocks of RNA and DNA are | nucleotides |
| cholesterol is the most important | steroid molecule |
| sequence of amino acids in a protein constitutes the __ structure of the protein | primary |
| bases are | proton acceptors |
| charged particle is correctly called a(n) | ion |
| synthesis reaction always involves | bond formation |
| carbon is found in ALL | organic compounds |
| ionic bonds are generally found in | inorganic compounds |
| covalent bonds are __ than hydrogen bonds | stronger |
| elements are | unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means |
| glucose is an example of a(n) | monosaccharide |
| isotopes differ from each other only | in number of neutrons contained |
| lipids are humans' | most plentiful source of stored energy |
| lipids are NOT | preferred source of energy for fueling cellular activity |
| glucose is | preferred source of energy for fueling cellular activity |
| oxygen is present in | proteins and fats |
| number of electrons in an atom are equal to | number of protons |
| compounds usually have very different properties from | the atoms that make them |
| something with a pH of 5 would | have more H+ ions than OH- ions |
| proteins biochemical building blocks/precursor | amino acids |
| DNAs biochemical building blocks/precursor | nucleotides |
| lipids biochemical building blocks/precursor | glycerol & fatty acids |
| carbohydrates biochemical building blocks/precursor | monosaccharides |
| atomic number of an atom is | equal to the number of protons in its nucleus |
| isotopes | majority of elements have two or more structural variations |
| isotopes are not necessarily present in equal amounts | in a given element |
| if the pH or temperature of environment that contains protein is altered dramatically, then protein may | become denatured |
| atoms of any given element will differ from those of | all other elements and provide its unique physical and chemical properties |
| emulsions are | heterogeneous mixtures |
| water is one of the most important | polar molecules in a living system |
| because enzymes are unchanged by their catalytic role & can act again/again, cells need | only small amounts of each enzyme |
| enzyme's active site binds to substrate(s) on which it acts, temporarily | forming an enzyme-substrate complex |
| enzyme-substrate complex undergoes __ __ that form the product(s) | internal rearrangements |
| enzyme releases the __ of the reaction | product(s) |
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