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Question: body system that includes internal that secrete hormonesAnswer: endocrine Question: endocrine system influences __ by means of hormonesAnswer: metabolic Question: steroidal or amino acid–based molecules released to the blood that act as messengers to regulate specific body functionsAnswer: hormones Question: binding of hormones to cellular receptors initiates responses that typically occur after __ __ of seconds or even Answer: lag Question: once initiated responses to receptor sites tends to be much __ __ than those induced by nervous systemAnswer: more Question: reproduction; growth & development; maintenance of electrolyte, water, & nutrient balance of ; regulation of cellular metabolism & energy balance; & mobilization of body defensesAnswer: major processes controlled & integrated by system Question: endocrine system orchestrates that go on forAnswer: relatively long or even continuously Question: scientific study of hormones & endocrine Answer: Question: compared with other organs of the body the endocrine areAnswer: small & Question: endocrine organs are not __ __ in the Answer: together Question: endocrine organs are __ __ the bodyAnswer: scattered Question: endocrine are also calledAnswer: ductless Question: endocrine glands released hormones intoAnswer: surrounding tissue Question: Answer: endo- Question: to Answer: -crine Question: endocrine glands have __ vascular & lymphatic that receives their hormonesAnswer: rich Question: most of hormone-producing cells in endocrine glands are in __ & __ networksAnswer: cords; Question: cords & branching are a situation that __ contact between endocrine glands & capillaries surrounding themAnswer: Question: includes pituitary, , parathyroid, adrenal, & pineal glandsAnswer: endocrine Question: considered a neuroendocrine organ because, along with its neural functions, it produces & hormonesAnswer: hypothalamus Question: pancreas, gonads, & placenta, with performing other functions,Answer: endocrine tissue Question: endocrine of adipose cells releaseAnswer: Question: endocrine function of thymus is Answer: hormones Question: are found in of small intestine, stomach, kidneys, & heartAnswer: hormone-producing Question: hormones are long-distance chemical signals that in __ throughout the bodyAnswer: /lymph Question: chemicals that exert their effects on same that secrete themAnswer: Question: also act locally but cell types other than those releasing the chemicalsAnswer: paracrines Question: certain prostaglandins released by smooth muscle cause those smooth muscle cells to contract making it a(n)Answer: Question: released by one of pancreatic cells inhibits release of insulin by a different population of pancreatic cells making it a(n)Answer: paracrine Question: synthesize hormones identical to those made in normal endocrine glands in excess/uncontrolled fashion leading to due to hormone-mediated pathologyAnswer: certain cells, such as lung/pancreatic cancer Question: most are __ __ basedAnswer: acid Question: amino acid derivativesAnswer: & thyroxine Question: chains of amino acidsAnswer: Question: long polymers of acidsAnswer: Question: group of chemical substances including certain hormones & cholesterol; fat soluble & contain little Answer: Question: only & adrenocortical hormones areAnswer: Question: biologically active are released by nearly all cell membranes; includes leukotrienes & prostaglandinsAnswer: eicosanoids Question: signaling chemicals that mediate inflammation & some reactionsAnswer: leukotrienes Question: have multiple targets & effects, ranging from raising blood pressure & increasing expulsive uterine contraction of to enhancing blood clotting, pain, & inflammationAnswer: Question: because effects of eicosanoids are typically highly localized, they act as paracrines/autocrines instead ofAnswer: true Question: true hormones __ targetsAnswer: Question: all major hormones to __ __ tissuesAnswer: virtually Question: influences activity of only certain tissue cells, referred to as its cellsAnswer: hormone Question: hormones bring about their characteristic effects on target cells by __ cell activity, decreasing/increasing rates of normal cellular processesAnswer: Question: hormonal stimulus typically plasma membrane permeability/potential (or both) byAnswer: opening/closing ion Question: hormonal stimulus typically __ __ of proteins or regulatory molecules (such as within cell)Answer: synthesis Question: hormonal stimulus typically or deactivates __Answer: enzymes Question: hormonal stimulus typically Answer: mitosis Question: hormones act at receptors in the plasma membrane when they Answer: -soluble hormones Question: water-soluble are all amino acid-based hormones except forAnswer: hormone Question: water-soluble hormones are coupled via regulatory molecules __ to one/more intracellular 2nd messengers which mediate target cell's responseAnswer: G Question: act on receptors, which directly activate genesAnswer: lipid-soluble Question: -soluble hormones includeAnswer: & thyroid hormones Question: for water-soluble hormones must be in __ __ since these hormones cannot enter cellAnswer: plasma Question: receptor for lipid-soluble steroid & thyroid hormones are __ Answer: inside Question: intracellular molecule generated by the binding of a chemical (hormone or neurotransmitter) to a plasma membrane receptor; mediates responses to the chemical messengeAnswer: messengers Question: with exception of hormone, all __ __ hormones exert their signaling effects through intracellular second messengersAnswer: acid-based Question: intracellular second messenger that the effects of the first (extracellular) messenger (hormone or neurotransmitter); formed from ATP by a plasma membrane enzyme (adenylate cyclase)Answer: AMP Question: cyclic AMP is used by __ & __ Answer: neurotransmitters; Question: cyclic AMP mechanism involves interaction of __ plasma membrane to determine intracellular levels of cyclic AMPAnswer: three Question: AMPAnswer: cAMP Question: three plasma membrane components to determine intracellular of cAMPAnswer: hormone , G protein, & effector enzyme Question: hormone bind receptor on plasma Answer: 1st step of cAMP Question: receptor G proteinAnswer: 2nd step of cAMP Question: when receptor activates G , hormone binding causes receptor to __ __, allowing it to bind a nearby inactive G proteinAnswer: shape Question: when activates G protein, it is activates as __ bound to it is displaced by high-energy compound __Answer: GDP (guanosine ); GTP (guanosine triphosphate) Question: once activated (cAMP) G protein behaves like a light switch, off when __ is to it and on when __ is boundAnswer: GDP; Question: G protein adenylate cyclaseAnswer: 3rd step of cAMP Question: during cAMP mechanism, activated G protein (moving along membrane) binds to effector Answer: adenylate Question: G protein that adenylate cyclaseAnswer: Question: G that inhibits adenylate cyclaseAnswer: Question: during cAMP mechanism, eventually GTP bound to G protein is __ to GDP, & G protein becomes inactive once Answer: hydrolyzed Question: during cAMP mechanism, G protein cleaves terminal phosphate off GTP in much same way that ATPase enzymes Answer: hydrolyze Question: adenylate cyclase converts ATP to AMPAnswer: 4th step of cAMP Question: during cAMP mechanism, for as long as activated Gs is bound to it, adenylate cyclase generates second messenger cAMP Answer: Question: cyclic AMP activate protein Answer: 5th step of cAMP Question: cAMP, which is free to throughout cell, triggers __ of chemical reactions by activating protein kinaseAnswer: Question: enzymes that phosphorylate proteins, many of which are other enzymesAnswer: protein Question: because __ activates some proteins and inhibits others (during cAMP) a variety of processes may be affected in same target cell at same Answer: phosphorylation Question: type of intracellular cascade during cAMP has a huge __ effectAnswer: Question: each adenylate cyclase generates large numbers of cAMP molecules, and a single kinase enzyme can catalyzeAnswer: hundreds of Question: as cAMP mechanism reaction cascades through 1 enzyme intermediate after another, number of product molecules __ __ at each Answer: dramatically Question: depends on type of target cell, specific protein kinase it contain, & substrates that cell available for phosphorylation by protein kinaseAnswer: sequence of set into motion by cAMP Question: binding of thyroid-stimulating hormone synthesis of thyroid hormoneAnswer: thyroxine Question: in , binding of glucagon activates enzymes that breakdown glycogen, releasingAnswer: glucose to Question: since some G proteins inhibit rather that activate adenylate cyclase, reducing cytoplasmic concentration of cAMP, even changes in levels of __ __ can influence target cell's activityAnswer: antagonistic Question: epinephrine, ACTH, FSH, LH, , PTH, TSH, & calcitonin are all hormones thatAnswer: act via cAMP Question: of cAMP persists only briefly because molecules is rapidly degraded by intracellularAnswer: enzyme Question: any of a class of enzymes that catalyze the cleaving of phosphodiester bonds, such as those between nucleotides in nucleic , to produce smaller nucleotide unitsAnswer: phosphodiesterase Question: because of amplification effect of cAMP mechanisms, most need to be present __ __ to cause desired resultsAnswer: only Question: in PIP2-calcium mechanism, intracellular calcium ions act asAnswer: mediator Question: inositol bisphosphateAnswer: Question: enzyme called phospholipase C splits plasma membrane phospholipid called PIP2 into diacylglycerol (DAG) and trisphosphate (IP3)Answer: PIP2-calcium mechanism Question: in PIP2-calcium mechanism, ___ activates protein kinase C which triggers responses within target cellAnswer: (DAG) Question: in PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism, __ __ releases Ca2+ from intracellular storage Answer: trisphosphate (IP3) Question: PIP2-calcium signaling mechanism, __ __ takes on second-messenger role, by directly altering activity of specific enzymes & channels or by binding to intracellular regulatory protein calmodulinAnswer: Ca2+ Question: in PIP2-calcium mechanism, once Ca2+ binds to calmodulin it activates enzymes that __ cellular responseAnswer: Question: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), antidiuretic hormone (ADH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), oxytocin, & epinephrine are all hormones known to act on their target viaAnswer: PIP2 Question: & other growth factors work __ second messengersAnswer: Question: tyrosine kinase that is activated by autophosphorylation when insulin bindsAnswer: receptor Question: activated insulin receptor provides sites for intracellular __ proteinsAnswer: Question: series of protein phosphorylations that triggers specific cell responsesAnswer: proteins Question: in certain instances, any of second messengers & hormone receptor itself can cause changes Answer: intracellular Ca2+ Question: thyroid hormone receptors are __ bound to DNA even in of thyroid hormoneAnswer: Question: for steroid & thyroid hormones, activated receptor-hormone complex makes way to nuclear chromatin and then binds to of DNA; this interaction "turns on" a gene that prompts transcription of DNA to produceAnswer: RNA (mRNA) Question: for & thyroid hormones, once mRNA produced, it is then translated on __ __, producing specific protein moleculesAnswer: ribosomes Question: protein molecules produced by mRNA include enzymes that promote metabolic activities induced by that particular hormone & in some cases promote synthesis of structural proteins or proteins to be transported from cellAnswer: for & thyroid hormones Question: for steroid & thyroid hormones, in absence of receptors are bound up inAnswer: receptor-chaperonin Question: receptor-chaperonin complexes that takes place in absence of steroid & thyroid hormones, keep from binding to DNA and mayAnswer: them from proteolysis Question: hydrolytic breakdown of into simpler, soluble substances such as peptides and amino acids, as occurs during digestionAnswer: Question: when steroid & thyroid hormones are present receptor-chaperonin complexes __ allowing hormone-bound receptor to bind to DNA & transcriptionAnswer: dissociate Question: in order for target cell to respond to hormone, cell must have __ __ receptors on its plasma membrane or in it interior to that hormones can bindAnswer: specific Question: receptors for ACTH are found on certain cell ofAnswer: cortex Question: is principal hormone stimulating cellular metabolism, and nearly all body have its receptorsAnswer: thyroxine Question: responds to binding by prompting cell to perform, or turn on, some gene-determined preprogrammed functionAnswer: hormone Question: are molecular __ rather than informational moleculesAnswer: Question: target cell activation by hormone-receptor interaction __ __ on blood of hormone, relative numbers of receptors for that hormone on target cell, & affinity of binding btwn response to various stimuli & changes within bodyAnswer: equally Question: for a given level of hormone in the , a large number of __ receptors produce a pronounced hormonal effectAnswer: high-affinity Question: for a given level of in the blood, a smaller number of __ receptors results in reduced target cell response or outright endocrine dysfunctionAnswer: low-affinity Question: are __ structuresAnswer: Question: phenomenon in which target cells form more in response to rising blood levels of specific hormone to which they respondAnswer: up-regulation Question: prolonged exposure to high hormone concentration desensitizes target cells, sot that they respond less vigorously to hormonal Answer: down-regulation Question: down-regulation involves loss of receptors & prevents target from overreacting toAnswer: persistently high levels Question: hormones influence number & not only of their own receptors but also receptor thatAnswer: respond to hormones Question: progesterone induces loss of estrogen receptors in uterus, this __ estrogen's actions; while causes same cells to produce more progesterone receptors, __ ability to respond to progesteroneAnswer: ; enhances Question: circulate through the blood as Answer: free or bound to carrier Question: lipid-soluble hormones travel in attached toAnswer: proteins Question: __ of a circulating hormone in blood at any time reflects it rate of release & speed at which it is inactivated & from bodyAnswer: Question: some hormones are degraded by __ in their target cellsAnswer: Question: most hormones are removed from the by Answer: kidneys or Question: most hormone breakdown products are excreted from body Answer: or feces Question: length of time for a hormone's blood level to decrease by half; varies from fraction of to a weekAnswer: half-life Question: __ hormones shorted half-livesAnswer: -soluble Question: is , ranging from 10 seconds to several hours Answer: duration of hormone Question: because of many variations, hormonal __ __ must be precisely & controlled to meet continuously changing needs of bodyAnswer: blood Question: situation when 1 hormone cannot exert its full effects without another being presentAnswer: Question: permissive effect for normal timely of reproductive structures (along with reproductive hormones)Answer: thyroid Question: occurs in situation where more than 1 hormones same effects at target cell & their combined effects are amplifiedAnswer: synergism Question: glucagon & epinephrine cause liver to release glucose to blood; when they act together amount of glucose released is about 150% of what is when each hormoneAnswer: acts Question: when one hormone opposes action of another Answer: antagonism Question: may compete for same receptors, act different pathways, or even cause down-regulation of receptors for antagonistic hormoneAnswer: antagonistic Question: synthesis & release of most are regulated byAnswer: negative feedback Question: major types of stimuli trigger endocrine glands to manufacture & released their Answer: humoral, neural, & Question: endocrine glands secrete their hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of critical ions & nutrientsAnswer: stimuli Question: humoral stimuli are __ controlsAnswer: simplest Question: hormones released in response to humoral includeAnswer: PTH, insulin, & Question: nerve fibers stimulate releaseAnswer: neural Question: sympathetic nervous system stimulation of adrenal medulla to release during periods of stressAnswer: example of stimuli Question: most anterior pituitary hormone release is by releasing/inhibiting hormones byAnswer: the Question: many anterior pituitary stimulate other endocrine toAnswer: their hormones Question: hormonal stimuli promote rhythmic hormone release, with hormone levels rising & falling in a specific patternAnswer: hypothalamic-pituitary-target endocrine organ feedback Question: hormonal, humoral, & stimuli are __ factors that affect endocrine systemAnswer: turn-on Question: feedback inhibition & are __ factors that affect endocrine systemAnswer: turn-off Question: in the body the __ system makes certain adjustment to maintain homeostasis by overriding normal controlsAnswer: nervous Question: 90-110mg/100ml of blood is the __ range of glucose levels in the Answer: normal Question: neuroendocrine gland located beneath the brain that serves a variety of functions including regulation of , thyroid, adrenal cortex, lactation, and water balanceAnswer: gland Question: pituitary gland is also known Answer: hypophysis Question: stalk of that connects the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus superiorlyAnswer: infundibulum Question: composed largely of pituicytes and nerve Answer: pituitary Question: glia-like supporting Answer: Question: hormones secreted by ; released by posterior pituitaryAnswer: Question: posterior pituitary is a(n) __ Answer: -storage Question: posterior pituitary plus infundibulum; of the pituitary gland derived from the brainAnswer: Question: pituitary; the glandular part of the pituitary glandAnswer: adenohypophysis Question: blood is delivered to pituitary via __ branches of internal carotid arteriesAnswer: hypophyseal Question: veins leaving pituitary drain Answer: sinuses Question: lobe of pituitary is actually part ofAnswer: the Question: nerve bundles that run through the infundibulum and connect the neurohypophysis and the Answer: hypothalamic-hypophyseal Question: hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract arises from __ in spraoptic & paraventricular of hypothalamusAnswer: neurons Question: made primarily by paraventricular neurons of hypothalamic-hypophyseal Answer: Question: made by supraoptic neurons of hypothalamic-hypophyseal tractAnswer: antidiuretic (ADH) Question: when hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract neurons fire they the stored hormones into a capillary bed in __ pituitary for distribution throughout the bodyAnswer: Question: originates from a outpocketing of oral mucosa (Rathke's pouch) and is formed from epithelial tissueAnswer: anterior lobe of Question: after touching posterior lobe, anterior lobe of pituitary it connection with oral mucosa & adheres toAnswer: Question: there is no __ __ between anterior lobe of pituitary & hypothalamusAnswer: neural Question: only connection between lobe of pituitary & hypothalamus isAnswer: Question: unusual arrangement of blood vessels in a capillary bed feeds into veins, which in turn feed into another capillary bedAnswer: portal Question: primary capillary plexus is inAnswer: the Question: located in the infundibulum, it communicates inferiorly via the hypophyseal portal veins with a secondary capillary plexusAnswer: primary plexus Question: & secondary capillary plexuses & intervening hypophyseal portal veins make up theAnswer: hypophyseal system Question: releasing & inhibiting hormones secreted by neurons in ventral hypothalamus circulate to __ __ via the hypophyseal portal Answer: anterior Question: hypophyseal portal system is where the regulation of hormone __ takes place for the pituitaryAnswer: secretion Question: all hypothalamic regulatory hormones are __ __ Answer: acid Question: hypothalamic hormones can be a(n)Answer: amine to peptides to proteins Question: activity of anterior pituitaryAnswer: Question: all anterior pituitary hormones Answer: proteins Question: large molecule isolated from pituitary; prohormone & source of andrenocorticotropic hormone, enkephalin & beta endorphin, & melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)Answer: pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) Question: CNS involved in control of appetiteAnswer: -stimulating hormone (MSH) Question: hormone that regulates the secretory of another endocrine organAnswer: tropic Question: thyroid-stimulating hormone, andrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, & hormone are allAnswer: Question: all anterior pituitary hormones except for __ affect their target cells via cyclic AMP second-messenger systemAnswer: Question: hormone that stimulates growth in general; produced in the pituitary; also called somatotropin (STH)Answer: growth (GH) Question: GH is by cells calledAnswer: somatotrophs Question: GH promotes and __ actionsAnswer: metabolic Question: major target(s) of GH Answer: bones & skeletal Question: stimulation of __ __, by GH, leads to long bone Answer: plate Question: stimulation of muscles by GH promotes increased __ __Answer: muscle Question: GH is a(n) __ Answer: anabolic Question: GH protein __Answer: synthesis Question: GH use of __ for fuel, thus conserving glucoseAnswer: Question: family of growth-promoting proteins produced by liver, skeletal , bone, & other tissues; mediated growth promoting effects of GHAnswer: insulin-like factors (IGFs) Question: IGFs by __ act as hormonesAnswer: liver Question: IGFs produced in other than liver act asAnswer: paracrines Question: IGFs stimulate actions required for growth by uptake of nutrients from blood & their incorporation into & DNA allowing growth byAnswer: cell Question: IGFs stimulate required for growth through formation of __ & deposition of __ __Answer: ; bone matrix Question: acting directly GH mobilizes fat for depots for transport to cells, thus increasing levels Answer: fatty Question: acting directly GH __ rate of uptake and metabolismAnswer: Question: in the GH encourages glycogen breakdown &Answer: of glucose to blood Question: the elevation blood glucose levels that occurs when GH acts upon liver brings about the __ __ or anti-insulin effect of Answer: glucose Question: hormone from hypothalamus that stimulates GH Answer: hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Question: hormone from hypothalamus that inhibits GH Answer: growth hormone-inhibiting (GHIH) Question: GHIH releases is by __ of GH & IGFsAnswer: feedback Question: rising levels of GH feed back to also __ its own Answer: inhibit Question: GH has a cycle with the highest levels occurring during Answer: evening Question: GHIH __ of thyroid-stimulating hormoneAnswer: blocks Question: GHIH is produced in the gut where its release inhibits virtually all & pancreatic __Answer: Question: excessive growth of the body or any of its parts, especially as a result of of the growth hormone by the pituitary glandAnswer: gigantism Question: chronic disease of adults marked by enlargement of the of the extremities, face, and jaw that is caused by overactivity of the pituitary gland secretion of GHAnswer: Question: GH deficiency in children results in long bone growthAnswer: pituitary Question: tropic adenohypophyseal hormone that regulates of thyroid hormonesAnswer: -stimulating hormone (TSH) Question: thyroid-stimulating (TSH) is also calledAnswer: thyrotopin Question: release of thyroid-stimulating (TSH) followsAnswer: -pituitary-target endocrine feedback loop Question: cells of anterior pituitary that TSHAnswer: thyrotrophs Question: triggers to release TSHAnswer: -releasing hormone (TRH) Question: rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on pituitary & hypothalamus Answer: inhibit TSH Question: anterior hormone that stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroid hormonesAnswer: hormone (ACTH) Question: adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) also calledAnswer: corticotropin Question: ACTH release is elicited by Answer: -releasing hormone (CRH) Question: ACTH levels peak Answer: shortly before awakening Question: rising levels of glucocorticoids feed back and __ of CRH & ACTH releaseAnswer: Question: internal & external factors that alter normal ACTH by triggering CRH release includeAnswer: fever, hypoglycemia, & stressors of all Question: hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that stimulates ovarian follicle production in females and production in malesAnswer: follicle-stimulating (FSH) Question: anterior pituitary hormone that aids maturation of cells in the ovary and triggers ovulation in females; in males, causes the interstitial cells of the testis to testosteroneAnswer: hormone (LH) Question: luteinizing hormone (LH) & follicle-stimulating (FSH), produced by anterior pituitary, are referred to collectively asAnswer: Question: in both FSH stimulates __ productionAnswer: Question: in females, LH works with FSH to cause an __ __ __ to Answer: egg-containing follicle Question: in both sexes LH production of __ hormonesAnswer: Question: in females, LH triggers __Answer: Question: in females, LH independently promotes synthesis & of __ hormonesAnswer: Question: in males, LH stimulates __ __ of testes to testosteroneAnswer: cells Question: gonadotropins are virtually __ from blood of prepuberty boys & Answer: Question: during puberty to gondotrophs of anterior are activated and gonadotropin levels begin to rise, causingAnswer: to mature Question: in both sexes, produced by hypothalamus, gondaotropin release by pituitary is promoted byAnswer: -releasing hormone (GnRH) Question: produced in response to the gonadotropins, feed back to FSH & LHAnswer: gonadal Question: adenohypophyseal hormone that stimulates the breasts to produce milk; protein hormone structurally to GHAnswer: (PRL) Question: prolactin release is controlled primarily by hormone prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), known asAnswer: dopamine Question: prolactin-releasing Answer: TRH Question: in females, levels rise & fall in rhythm with __ blood levelsAnswer: estrogen Question: estrogen stimulates releaseAnswer: directly & Question: most abnormality of anterior pituitary tumorsAnswer: hyperprolactinemia Question: made largely of axons of hypothalamic neurons; stores antidiuretic (ADH) and oxytocinAnswer: posterior Question: composed of 9 acids; differ in only 2 amino acidsAnswer: ADH & Question: body water balance Answer: ADH Question: hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary; stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth and the of milk during nursingAnswer: oxytocin Question: oxytocin acts via __ second-messenger system to Ca2+ allowing stronger contractionsAnswer: PIP-Ca2+ Question: childbirth & milk ejection fromAnswer: feedback mechanisms Question: productionAnswer: Question: substance that or prevent urine formationAnswer: Question: hormone produced by the hypothalamus and by the posterior pituitary; stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water, reducing urine volumeAnswer: hormone (ADH) Question: ADH is also Answer: Question: ADH prevents wide swings in __ Answer: Question: sensory end organ that responds to changes in osmotic pressure; continually monitors concentration of bloodAnswer: Question: ADH __ __ via cAMPAnswer: tubules Question: pain, low blood pressure, & drugs such as nicotine, morphine, & barbiturates are all stimuli that Answer: ADH Question: drinking alcoholic beverages __ ADH Answer: inhibits Question: diuretic drugs __ of ADH and cause water to be flushed from the bodyAnswer: Question: at high blood concentrations ADH causes __ of the visceral vesselsAnswer: Question: disease characterized by passage of a large quantity of dilute urine plus intense thirst and caused by inadequate release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)Answer: insipidus Question: pulmonary cancers are toAnswer: secrete Question: marked by retention of fluid, headache & disorientation due to brain edema, gain & decreased solute concentration in bloodAnswer: syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH) Question: one of the largest of the body's endocrine ; straddles the anterior tracheaAnswer: thyroid Question: median tissue mass of thyroid Answer: Question: hollow, spherical, colloid-containing structure of the thyroid Answer: follicles Question: formed largely by cubiodal or squamous cells & produce glycoprotein thyrogolubulinAnswer: cells Question: central cavity of follicleAnswer: Question: lumen of thyroid follicle __ Answer: stores Question: amber-colored, sticky in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein with attached iodine atomsAnswer: colloid Question: from iodinated thyroglobulinAnswer: thyroid Question: of cells in thyroid gland that produce calcitonin; lie in follicular epithelium but protrude into soft connective tissue that separates & surrounds thyroid folliclesAnswer: cells Question: major hormone secreted by thyroid follicles; stimulates concerned with glucose oxidationAnswer: hormone (TH) Question: thyroid hormone (TH) is referred to as the body'sAnswer: metabolic hormone Question: iodine-containing hormone secreted by the thyroid ; accelerates cellular metabolic rate in most body tissues; major hormone secreted by thyroid folliclesAnswer: (T4) Question: thyroid hormone; secretion and function similar to those of (T_4)Answer: (T3) Question: most T3 is at the target tissue byAnswer: conversion of T4 to Question: TH a target cell andAnswer: initiates transcription of mRNA for synthesis Question: by turning on transcription of genes with glucose oxidation, THAnswer: has effect Question: increases basal metabolic rate & body heat Answer: calorigenic Question: TH provokes increase in number of __ in blood vessels, playing important role in maintaining blood pressureAnswer: Question: important in regulating tissue & development, as well as critical for normal skeletal & nervous system development/maturation, & reproductive capabilities Answer: Question: thyroid gland has ability to store its hormone & stored amount remains constant & sufficient to provide levels of hormone release forAnswer: two to three Question: when TSH from pituitary binds to receptors on thyroid follicle cells, first response is toAnswer: secrete stored thyroid Question: when TSH from pituitary binds to receptors on thyroid follicle cells, second response is toAnswer: begin synthesizing more to restock thyroid follicle lumen Question: TSH levels are __ the dayAnswer: lower Question: TSH levels __ just sleepAnswer: peak Question: TSH levels remain __ during the Answer: Question: when thyroglobulin is synthesized and into follicle lumenAnswer: step 1 synthesis of TH by cells Question: iodide is trapped by active transport by follicle cell, then moves into lumen by facilitated Answer: step 2 of TH by follicle cells Question: iodide is oxidized to Answer: step 3 synthesis of TH by cells Question: iodine is attached to at junction of follicle cell apex & colloid, & is mediated by peroxidase enzymesAnswer: step 4 of TH by follicle cells Question: of 1 iodine to a tyrosine producesAnswer: (MIT or T1) Question: attachment of 2 to a tyrosine producesAnswer: (DIT or T2) Question: iodinated tyrosines are together to form T3 & T4; enzymes in colloid link MIT & DIT together; hormones are still part of thyroglobulin colloidAnswer: step 5 synthesis of TH by cells Question: 2 DITs inAnswer: T4 Question: coupling of MIT & DIT Answer: Question: thyroglobulin colloid is endocystosed; follicle cells must reclaim iodinated thyroglobulin by & combine vesicles with lysosomesAnswer: step 6 of TH by follicle cells Question: lysosomal enzymes cleave T4 & T3 from thyroglobulin & hormones diffuse from cell into bloodstreamAnswer: step 7 synthesis of TH by cells Question: some T4 cane be converted to T3 __ Answer: Question: most T3 is generated Answer: tissues Question: most T3 & T4 released immediately to transport proteins, most importantlyAnswer: thyroxine-binding (TBGs) Question: -binding globulins (TBGs) are produced byAnswer: the Question: T3 that binds to target receptors does soAnswer: much more avidly & is 10x more active Question: most peripheral tissues have enzymes needed to convert T4 to T3 Answer: removing one Question: of blood levels of TH is on a(n)Answer: negative loop Question: falling TH levels trigger __ of TSHAnswer: release Question: rising levels of TH feed back to __ hypothalamic-anterior axis, temporarily shutting off stimulus for TH releaseAnswer: Question: condition that increase body energy requirements, such pregnancy & exposure of infants to cold, stimulate hypothalamus to secrete __ __ which TSH release allowing it to overcome negative feedback controlsAnswer: thyrotropin-releasing (TRH) Question: GHIH, dopamine, & rising levels of glucocorticoids are factors Answer: inhibit TSH Question: excessively high blood iodine inhibitAnswer: TH release Question: condition resulting from thyroid gland in adultsAnswer: myxedema Question: if myxedema results from lack of iodine, enlargement & protrusion of glandAnswer: endemic/colloidal Question: hypothyroidism in infantsAnswer: cretinism Question: disorder from hyperactive thyroid glandAnswer: 's disease Question: protrusion of eyeballs, if tissue behind eyes becomes edematous & then ; common in Grave's diseaseAnswer: exophthalmos Question: polypeptide hormone released by the thyroid; lowers blood calcium levels only when present at high (therapeutic) Answer: Question: calcitonin is byAnswer: / C cells Question: effect of calcitonin is is to __ Ca2+Answer: lower Question: calcitonin has an antagonizing effect on __ Answer: parathyroid Question: targets of calcitonin Answer: skeleton & bony Question: targeting the skeleton, calcitonin inhibits __ activity, inhibiting bone reabsorption & of Ca2+ from bony matrixAnswer: osteoclast Question: the bony matrix, calcitonin __ Ca2+ uptake & incorporation into bone matrixAnswer: stimulates Question: calcitonin has a __ Answer: bone-sparing Question: excessive blood levels of Ca2+ (approx. 20% normal) act as a __ stimulus for calcitonin releaseAnswer: Question: declining Ca2+ levels inhibit C cell __ ActivityAnswer: secretory Question: calcitonin is given therapeutically to patient's Answer: Paget's Question: small endocrine glands located on the posterior of the thyroid glandAnswer: parathyroid Question: parathyroid glands are arranged in thick branching cords containing scattered __ cells and large numbers of smaller __ Answer: oxyphil; Question: most abundant parenchymal cells of the parathyroid, being polygonal epithelial cells rich in glycogen, having granular and vesicular nuclei, and arranged in plates or cordsAnswer: chief Question: acidophilic cells found in the glandsAnswer: oxyphil Question: protein hormone by parathyroid glands; single most important hormone regulating blood calcium levelAnswer: hormone (PTH)/parathormone Question: Ca2+ homeostasis is for so many functions, includingAnswer: transmission of nerve , muscle contraction, & blood clotting Question: PTH release is triggered by __ blood Ca2+ Answer: falling Question: PTH release is by __ blood Ca2+ levelsAnswer: rising Question: PTH increases Ca2+ levels in blood by stimulating organs ofAnswer: skeleton, , & intestine Question: skeleton considerable amount of __ __ in its matrix, making it an apt target organ of PTHAnswer: calcium Question: bone-reabsorbing Answer: osteoclast Question: PTH release stimulates osteoclast to digest some of the bony matrix and release ionic calcium & phosphates to the Answer: step 1 Question: enhances reabsorption of Ca2+, as well as excretion of phosphate (PO43-) by Answer: step 2 Question: promotes activation of D3 thereby increasing absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal cellsAnswer: step 3 Question: for absorption of Ca2+ from foodAnswer: vitamin Question: D ingested or produced by skin is a(n)Answer: inactive Question: for vitamin D to exert its physiological effects it must be by kidneys to its active vitamin D3 form ofAnswer: Question: group of active metabolites of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3);increases intestinal absorption of calcium & phosphate, enhances bone resorption, & ricketsAnswer: /calcitriol Question: rare & usually results from tumor; calcium is leached from bones causing bones to soften & deform as mineral salts are replaced by fibrous connective tissueAnswer: hyperparathyroidism Question: bones have moth-eaten appearance on x-rays & tend to spontaneouslyAnswer: osteitis cystica Question: abnormally elevated blood Ca2+ Answer: Question: hypercalcemia causes __ of nervous system and of __ stonesAnswer: depression; Question: calcium deposits that form is soft tissues throughout body & impair vital organ functioningAnswer: calcification Question: PTH deficiency; follows parathyroid gland trauma or removal during thyroid surgeryAnswer: hypoparathyroidism Question: extended deficiency of magnesium, required for PTH secretion) can causeAnswer: hypoparathyroidism Question: low Ca2+ levelsAnswer: Question: hypocalcemia resulting from functional hypoparathyroidism __ of neurons & accounts for classical symptoms of tetanyAnswer: increases Question: loss of , muscle twitches, & convulsionsAnswer: tetany Question: untreated symptoms of functional progress toAnswer: respiratory paralysis & Question: hormone-producing -shaped organs located superior to kidneys; each consists of medulla & cortex areasAnswer: adrenal Question: adrenal glands are inAnswer: fibrous capsule & cushion of Question: adrenal are often referred to asAnswer: glands Question: each glands is structurally & functionallyAnswer: two glands Question: inner portion; more like a knot of tissue; part of sympathetic nervous systemAnswer: adrenal Question: outer portion; encapsulating medulla & forming bulk of gland; glandular tissue derived from mesodermAnswer: adrenal Question: each region of gland producesAnswer: its own Question: all hormones help upAnswer: cope with stressful Question: over two dozen steroid hormones synthesized by cortex are calledAnswer: corticosteroids Question: multistep steroid synthesis pathway, of adrenal cortex, withAnswer: Question: steroid are not __ in cellsAnswer: Question: the rate of steroid hormone release in response to depends on theirAnswer: rate of Question: large, lipid-laden cortical cells of adrenal cortex are arranged Answer: 3 /zones Question: cell forming superficial layer; produce mineralocorticoidsAnswer: zona Question: steroid hormone of adrenal cortex that Na^+ & K^+ metabolism & fluid balanceAnswer: mineralocorticoids Question: cells forming middle layer; arranged in more/less linear cords; glucocorticoidsAnswer: zona Question: steroid that affect glycogenesis in the liver; anti-inflammatory, are active in protection against stress, and affect carbohydrate and protein metabolismAnswer: glucocorticoids Question: innermost cells abutting adrenal medulla in netlike arrangement; mainly produce amounts of gonadocorticoidsAnswer: zona Question: adrenal sex Answer: Question: 2 innermost layers of adrenal cortex __ __ of glucocorticoids & , although each layer predominately produces one typeAnswer: share Question: single most abundant cation in extracellular isAnswer: Na+ Question: amount of Na+ in body determines __ of extracellular fluidAnswer: Question: where Na+ goes __ Answer: water Question: lead to changes in blood volume & blood Answer: changes in Na+ blood Question: coupled to Na+ is of other ions, includingAnswer: K+, H+, HCO3 (bicarbonate), & Cl- (chloride) Question: sets the resting membrane potential of cells & determine how easily action potentials are generated in & muscleAnswer: extracellular of K+ Question: Na+ & K+ __ are to overall body homeostasisAnswer: Question: hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion by the kidneysAnswer: aldosterone Question: aldosterone is the most __ Answer: potent Question: aldosterone accounts for __ __ 95% of the mineralocorticoids Answer: more Question: __ excretion of Na+ from bodyAnswer: Question: primary target of aldosterone is __ parts of kidney tubules, where it stimulate Na+ reabsorption & retention accompanied by K+ eliminationAnswer: distal Question: in some instances aldosterone's effect on distal kidney tubules can __ balance of blood by H+ excretionAnswer: acid-base Question: aldosterone __ Na+ from perspiration, saliva, & gastric juiceAnswer: Question: aldosterone's regulatory effects are __ lasting approx. 20 minutes, allowing plasma electrolyte to be precisely controlledAnswer: brief Question: involves synthesis & activation of proteins required for Na+ transport, such as Na+-K+ , pump that exchanges Na+ for K+Answer: mechanism of activity Question: aldosterone is also by __ organsAnswer: Question: in cardiovascular organs is a(n)Answer: paracrine Question: secretion is __ by decreasing blood volume & pressure, as well as rising levels of K+Answer: stimulated Question: renin-angiotensin, plasma concentrations of K+, ACTH, & natriuretic peptide (ANP)Answer: mechanisms that regulate aldosterone Question: released by the kidneys that is involved with raising blood pressureAnswer: Question: influences both blood volume & pressure by release of aldosterone and therefore Na+ & water reabsorption by kidneysAnswer: renin-angiotensin Question: in renin-angiotensin mechanism, specialized of __ __ in kidneys become excited when blood pressure/volume declines, and thus release reninAnswer: juxtaglomerular Question: in renin-angiotensin , when renin is released it cleaves off part of plasma protein angiotensinogen, which triggersAnswer: enzymatic leading to formation of angiotensin II Question: potent vasoconstrictor activated by renin; also triggers of aldosterone by glomerulosa cellsAnswer: angiotensin Question: all of effects of renin-angiotensin mechanism are involved inAnswer: raising blood Question: fluctuating blood levels of K+ directly influence zona glomerulosa cells in adrenal cortex; increased K+ stimulates aldosterone release, whereas decreased K+ inhibits Answer: concentration of K+to regulate aldosterone secretion mechanism Question: under severe stress, hypothalamus secretes more -releasing hormone (CRH), 7 resulting rise in ACTH blood levels steps up rate of aldosterone secretion to small extent; resulting in increased blood volume/pressureAnswer: ACTH to regulate aldosterone secretion Question: hormone secreted by heart when blood pressure rises; fine-tunes blood pressure & sodium-water of bodyAnswer: natriuretic peptide (ANP) Question: one of effects of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is toAnswer: renin-angiotensin mechanism Question: ANP blocks renin & aldosterone & inhibits other __ mechanisms that enhance water & Na+ reabsorptionAnswer: -induced Question: blood pressure by allowing Na+ (and water_ to flow out of body in urineAnswer: ANP mechanism's overall Question: producing urineAnswer: natriuretic Question: hypersecretion of aldosterone; results from adrenal tumorsAnswer: aldosteronism Question: if K+ loss is __ neurons become nonresponsive & weakness (eventually paralysis) occursAnswer: Question: hyposecretory of adrenal cortex, generally involving a deficient output of both mineralocorticoids & glucocorticoidsAnswer: 's disease Question: glucocorticoids are adrenal hormones thatAnswer: increase glucose levels and aid the body in resisting long-term stressors Question: under normal circumstances glucocorticoids help body to adapt to intermittent food intake by keeping __ __ fairly constant, and maintain blood pressure by increasing action of __Answer: blood ; vasoconstrictors Question: severe stress due to hemorrhage, , or physical/emotional trauma evokes a dramatically __ output of glucocorticoids, which help body negotiate crisisAnswer: Question: cortisol, cortisone, Answer: glucocorticoid Question: glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex; release is promoted by ACTH; rising levels feed back to act on both hypothalamus & anterior Answer: (hydrocortisone) Question: basic mechanism of glucocorticoid action on target is toAnswer: gene activity Question: glucocorticoid secretion is byAnswer: feedback Question: driven by patterns of eating & activity, occur in a pattern throughout day & nightAnswer: cortisol bursts Question: cortisol blood levels peak __ __ we in morningAnswer: before Question: __ __ of cortisol occur in evening just before and shortly after we fall Answer: levels Question: __ __ __ can be interrupted by acute stress of any variety as higher CNS center override the usually effects of elevated cortisol level & trigger CRH releaseAnswer: normal rhythm Question: under __ __ the increase in ACTH blood levels causes an outpouring of cortisol from adrenal cortexAnswer: stress Question: stress results in __ __ in blood levels of glucose, acids, and amino acidsAnswer: rise Question: 's __ __ effects is to provoke gluconeogenesisAnswer: metabolic Question: formation of glucose, especially by the liver, from noncarbohydrate , such as amino acidsAnswer: Question: in order to save glucose for the __, cortisol mobilizes fatty acids from adipose tissue & encourages increased use for energyAnswer: Question: under cortisol's influence, __ __ are down to provide building blocks for repair or for making enzymes to be used in metabolic processesAnswer: stored Question: cortisol enhances the __ nervous system's vasoconstrictive , and the rise in blood pressure & circulatory efficiency that results helps ensure that these nutrients are quickly distributed to cellsAnswer: Question: __ is associated with significant inflammatory & anti-immune effectsAnswer: excess Question: depress /bone formation; inhibit inflammation by decreasing release of inflammatory chemicals; depress immune system; promote changes in cardiovascular, neural & GI functionAnswer: excessive of glucocorticoids Question: rheumatoid arthritis & allergic reactions use __ __ to symptoms of chronic inflammatory disordersAnswer: drugs Question: pathology of excess; may be caused by ACTH-releasing pituitary tumor, ACTH-releasing malignancy of lungs, pancreas, or kidneys, or tumor of adrenal cortexAnswer: Cushing's Question: Cushing's disease is most a result of clinical administration of __ __ of glucocorticoid drugsAnswer: pharmacological Question: characterized by persistent elevated blood glucose levels, dramatic losses in muscle/bone protein, & water/salt retention leading to hypertension & Answer: 's syndrome Question: elevated blood glucose levels brought on by pharmacological doses of glucocorticoidsAnswer: diabetes Question: include swollen "moon" face, redistribution of fat to the abdomen & posterior neck, tendency to bruise, & poor healingAnswer: cushingoid Question: major hyposecretory disorder of adrenal cortex, usually involves deficits in both glucocorticoids & mineralcorticoids; weight loss, plasma glucose & sodium levels drop, & levels riseAnswer: 's disease Question: sex hormones, primarily androgens, secreted by the adrenal Answer: gonadocorticoids Question: hormone such as that controls male secondary sex characteristicsAnswer: androgen Question: androstenedione & dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) are to __ in tissue cells in malesAnswer: Question: androstenedione & dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) are to __ in tissue cells in femalesAnswer: estrogens Question: hypersecretion of causesAnswer: syndrome Question: spherical cell that stains readily with chromium salts, a cell of the adrenal medullaAnswer: cells Question: chromaffin cells are modified ganglionic __ __ that catecholaminesAnswer: sympathetic Question: chief hormone produced by the medulla; also called adrenalineAnswer: Question: catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal medullary , associated with sympathetic nervous system activationAnswer: (NE) Question: adrenal medulla synthesize catecholamines via __ __ from tyrosine to dopamine to NE to Answer: molecular Question: blood glucose levels rise, blood vessels constrict & heart beats faster, blood is diverted from nonessential organs to heart & skeletal muscles & preganglionic sympathetic endings weaving through adrenal medulla signal for catecholamine releaseAnswer: when sympathetic system is mobilized, in flight-or-flight Question: release of from adrenal medulla reinforce or prolongAnswer: fight-or-flight Question: more potent catecholamine stimulator of activities, bronchial dilation, & increased blood flow to skeletal muscles & heartAnswer: epinephrine Question: catecholamine that has influence on peripheral vasoconstriction & blood pressureAnswer: norepinephrine Question: epinephrine is used clinically as heart stimulant & to dilate duringAnswer: acute attack Question: catecholamines cause __ responses to stressorsAnswer: Question: deficiency of hormones of adrenal medulla is not a problem because these hormones merely __ activities set into motion by sympathetic systemAnswer: Question: adrenal catecholamines __ __ essential for Answer: are Question: symptoms of uncontrolled sympathetic nervous system activity Answer: of catecholamines Question: symptoms include hyperglycemia, increased metabolic rate, rapid heartbeat & , hypertension, intense nervousness & sweating; tumor of chromaffin cells of adrenal medullaAnswer: Question: hormone-secreting part of diencephalon of brain to be involved in setting biological clock & influencing reproductive functionAnswer: gland Question: hormone secreted by pineal gland; secretion peaks at night and helps set sleep-wake cycles; also a powerful Answer: melatonin Question: pineal gland indirectly receives input from __ concerning the intensity & duration of daylightAnswer: visual Question: area referred to as our clock; richly supplied with melatonin receptorsAnswer: suprachiasmatic Question: gland located behind stomach, between & duodenum; produces both endocrine & exocrine secretionsAnswer: Question: zymogen-secreting cells of the pancreatic; produce enzyme-rich that is carried by ducts to small intestine during digestionAnswer: cells Question: tiny cell clusters (scattered among cells)that produce pancreatic hormonesAnswer: pancreatic Question: pancreatic islets are also know Answer: of Langerhans Question: glucagon-synthesizing cells of Answer: alpha Question: insulin-producing of pancreasAnswer: beta Question: act as tiny fuel sensors, secreting glucagon & appropriately during fasting & fed statesAnswer: alpha & beta Question: insulin is a(n) __ Answer: hypoglycemic Question: is a(n) __ hormoneAnswer: Question: some __ __ also produce peptides, such as somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), etc.Answer: islet Question: hormone formed by alpha cells of pancreatic ; raises the glucose level of blood; 29-amino-acid polypeptideAnswer: Question: one molecule of glucagon can release 100 million molecules of __ into the Answer: Question: breakdown of glycogen to Answer: glycogenolysis Question: glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, release of glucose to blood by liver cells, causing blood glucose levels to Answer: targets of glucagon Question: fall in amino acid concentration in blood as liver cells sequester glucagon to make new glucose moleculesAnswer: effect of glucagon Question: humoral , falling glucose levels, prompt __ cells to secrete glucagonAnswer: Question: nervous system stimulation & rising amino acid levels are also __ for glucagon releaseAnswer: Question: glucagon release is __ by blood glucose levels, insulin, & somatostatinAnswer: suppressed Question: that enhances carrier-mediated diffusion of glucose into tissue cells, thus lowering blood glucose levels; small protein consisting of 2 amino acid chains linked by disulfide bondsAnswer: insulin Question: insulin is as part of a larger polypeptide chain calledAnswer: Question: main of insulin is to __ blood glucose levels, but it also influences protein & fat metabolismAnswer: lower Question: middle portion of proinsulin polypeptide is excised by enzymes releasing __ insulinAnswer: functional Question: functional "clipping" takes places in secretory vesicles just before insulin is releasedAnswer: from the beta Question: insulin's effects are most when we haveAnswer: just Question: main effect of insulin is Answer: lower sugar Question: insulin also Answer: protein & fat Question: circulating insulin lowers blood glucose levels by enhancing membrane __ of into body cells, especially muscle & fatAnswer: transport Question: circulating insulin lowers blood glucose levels by __ of glycogen to glucoseAnswer: breakdown Question: circulating insulin lowers blood levels by __ conversion of amino acids or fats to glucoseAnswer: Question: insulin does no glucose entry into liver, kidney, & brain tissues becauseAnswer: they have easy access to glucose regardless of insulin levels Question: insulin roles in the __ in neuronal development, feeding behavior, & learning/memoryAnswer: brain Question: inhibiting effects of insulin counter any metabolic activity that increase __ __ of glucoseAnswer: plasma Question: at level insulin activates its receptor __ __ enzyme which phosphorylates specific proteins beginning the cascade that leads to increased glucose uptake & insulin's other effectsAnswer: kinase Question: after glucose target cell, insulin binding triggers enzymatic activities that catalyze __ of glucose for ATP productionAnswer: oxidation Question: after glucose enters target cell, insulin binding triggers enzymatic activities that join glucose molecules together Answer: form Question: after glucose enters target cell, binding triggers enzymatic activities that convert glucose toAnswer: fat, in adipose tissue Question: as a rule, energy need are met first, by __ __Answer: formation Question: if excess glucose is , after energy needs have been met, it is thenAnswer: to fat Question: insulin amino acid uptake & protein synthesis inAnswer: tissue Question: pancreatic beta are stimulated to secrete insulin chiefly byAnswer: elevated blood levels Question: pancreatic beta are stimulated to secrete insulin by rising __ __ of amino & fatty acidsAnswer: levels Question: pancreatic beta cells are stimulated to secrete insulin by of acetylcholine by __ nerve fibersAnswer: parasympathetic Question: as body cells take up glucose & other nutrients, and plasma levels of these substances drop, secretionAnswer: is suppressed Question: glucagon, epinephrine, growth hormone, thyroxine, & glucocorticoids are Answer: hyperglycemia Question: any hyperglycemia hormone called into action as blood glucose levels drop __ __ insulin by promoting glucose entry into bloodstreamAnswer: stimulates Question: somatostatin & sympathetic nervous activation __ insulin releaseAnswer: depress Question: insulin is the major __ __ that counterbalances the many hypoglycemic Answer: hypoglycemic Question: disease caused by deficient insulin release or by insulin resistance, to inability of the body cells to use carbohydratesAnswer: mellitus (DM) Question: excess of lost from body in urineAnswer: Question: fatty acid metabolites; strong organic Answer: ketones Question: sugars cannot be used as cellular fuel, more fats are mobilized in high fatty acids levels in bloodAnswer: lipidemia Question: when ketones accumulate in blood, the blood pH and ketones begin to spill into the urineAnswer: ketoacidosis Question: ketones begin to into the urineAnswer: ketonuria Question: polyuria, polydipsia, & polyphagia are the three __ __ of diabetes Answer: cardinal Question: excessive glucose in filtrate act as __ __ resulting in polyuriaAnswer: diuretic Question: excessive outputAnswer: polyuria Question: thirstAnswer: Question: excessive hunger & food Answer: polyphagia Question: insulin secretionAnswer: Question: __ __ hypoglycemiaAnswer: results Question: hyperinsulinism can from __ __ tumorAnswer: islet Question: hyperinsulinism can from an __ of insulinAnswer: overdose Question: male & female gonads produce steroid sex __ to those produced by adrenal cortical cellsAnswer: identical Question: ovaries important hormones ofAnswer: & progesterone Question: temporary endocrine organ; secretes several steroid & protein that influence course of pregnancyAnswer: Question: include & progesterone, as well as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)Answer: hormones Question: prompts kidneys to increase their production of salty urine & inhibits aldosterone release by adrenal cortex; thereby decreasing amount of sodium in extracellular , reducing blood volume & pressureAnswer: ANP Question: hormone secreting cells sprinkled in mucosa of GI tract; release several hormones that help regular wide variety of digestive functionsAnswer: enteroendocrine Question: enteroendocrine cells release amines, like serotonin acting as paracrines, to & influencing nearby target cells without firstAnswer: bloodstream Question: enteroendocrine cells are sometimes referred to as __ because they are similar in certain ways to neurons & many of hormones & paracrines are chemically identical to neurotransmittersAnswer: paraneurons Question: hormone that stimulates production of red blood cells; hormones that signals bone marrow to increase RBC productionAnswer: (EPO) Question: erythropoietin is secreted by interstitial inAnswer: Question: hormones function of kidneys is secretion Answer: & renin Question: inactive form of vitamin D, when modified cholesterol molecules in epidermal cells are to UV radiationAnswer: Question: is hormone secreted fromAnswer: Question: cholecalciferol is modified in the __ and fully activated in the __Answer: ; kidneys Question: is __ __ of carrier system that intestinal cells use to absorb Ca2+ from ingested foodAnswer: essential Question: hormone released by fat cells that signals satiety; serves to tell body how much energy is availableAnswer: Question: leptin binds to CNS neurons with __ __Answer: control Question: hormones by adipose cells that affect sensitivity of cells to insulinAnswer: & adiponectin Question: insulin antagonist by adipose tissueAnswer: resistin Question: enhances sensitivity to & is secreted by adipose tissueAnswer: Question: hormone secreted by osteoblasts that pancreatic beta cells to divide & secrete more insulin; restricts fat storage by adipocytes & triggers release of adiponectinAnswer: osteocalcin Question: is that handling is improved & body fat is reducedAnswer: of osteocalcin Question: osteocalcin levels are __ in type 2 Answer: Question: lymphoid organ and endocrine gland active in immune response; site of maturation of T Answer: Question: peptide hormones secreted by thymus; thought to be involved in normal development of T lymphocytes & responseAnswer: thymulin, thymopoietins, & Question: thymulin, thymopoietins, & thymosins are called hormones but Answer: act as paracrines Question: hormone-producing glands fromAnswer: all three embryonic germ Question: endocrine glands from __ produce steroid hormonesAnswer: mesoderm Question: endocrinology the study ofAnswer: endocrine organs and Question: steroids Answer: from cholesterol Question: any given hormone will the activity ofAnswer: its cell Question: PIP2-calcium mechanism is mechanisms of hormone action in whichAnswer: intracellular calcium ions act as a mediator Question: down-regulation Answer: loss of & prevents target cells from overreacting to persistently high hormone levels Question: when one hormone opposes the action of another hormone, the interaction is Answer: antagonism Question: within a negative feedback system the organ effectsAnswer: further hormone release Question: anterior pituitary has traditionally been called the "master gland" becauseAnswer: many of the numerous hormones it produces regulate the of other endocrine glands Question: in recent years, anterior pituitary has been by the __, which is now known to control the activity of the anterior pituitaryAnswer: Question: hormone stimulatesAnswer: most body cells to increase in size and Question: pituitary dwarfism is homeostatic imbalance resulting Answer: of growth hormone Question: follicle-stimulating Answer: stimulates (sperm or egg) production Question: as blood levels of __ __, the expulsive contractions of labor gain and finally end in birthAnswer: rise Question: because TH provokes an increase in number of __ __ in blood vessels, it plays an important role in maintaining pressureAnswer: adrenergic Question: chief cells Answer: found within the parathyroid that secrete parathyroid hormone Question: if left hypoparathyroidism canAnswer: lead to /death Question: 's disease is homeostatic imbalance that usually results fromAnswer: in both glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids Question: adenohypophysis Answer: TSH Question: neurohypophysis Answer: Question: gland secretesAnswer: Question: adrenal gland Answer: aldosterone Question: pineal secretesAnswer: melatonin Question: Answer: stimulates development of the follicle in the Question: Answer: mobilizes fats, spares glucose, and promotes the protein synthesis necessary for Question: ACTHAnswer: stimulate adrenal Question: TSHAnswer: thyroid gland Question: Answer: stimulates kidney tubules to reabsorb from urine Question: condition that would be balanced by Answer: high levels of sugar Question: that would be balanced by ADHAnswer: loss of body Question: condition that would be by aldosteroneAnswer: loss of Na+ from fluids Question: condition that would be balanced by Answer: in body metabolism Question: condition that be balanced by parathyroid hormoneAnswer: in blood Ca+ levels Question: of thyroid-stimulating hormoneAnswer: stimulates of thyroxine Question: of growth hormoneAnswer: causes cells to undergo mitosis & increase in Question: of oxytocinAnswer: increases contraction of smooth muscles Question: function of hormoneAnswer: causes adrenal cortex to produce Question: function of follicle-stimulating Answer: affects functions of ovaries & Question: site of release & function of Answer: anterior pituitary; thyroid gland to synthesize thyroxine Question: site of & function of FSHAnswer: anterior pituitary; causes ovarian follicles to grow & estrogen & spermatogenesis in testes Question: site of & function of LHAnswer: anterior pituitary; causes ovulation & interstitial to produce testosterone in testes Question: site of release & function of Answer: posterior pituitary; causes contractions Question: site of release & function of Answer: posterior pituitary; kidneys to conserve water Question: of prolactinAnswer: stimulates mild Question: function of Answer: stimulates milk from mammary glands Question: of thyroxineAnswer: metabolic rate Question: of calcitoninAnswer: blood Ca2+ levels Question: function of parathyroid Answer: blood Ca2+ levels Question: gland/organ that calcitoninAnswer: thyroid Question: gland/organ that parathyroid hormoneAnswer: parathyroid Question: gland/organ that produces adrenocorticotropic Answer: pituitary Question: /organ that produces glucocorticoidsAnswer: cortex Question: gland/organ that epinephrineAnswer: medulla Question: pineal producesAnswer: Question: testes Answer: Question: producesAnswer: Question: producesAnswer: atrial natriuretic Question: producesAnswer: human chorionic (HCG) Question: of melatoninAnswer: associated with at night Question: function of Answer: associated with sexual maturity in ; needed for normal sperm production Question: of thymosinAnswer: essential for normal response Question: function of atrial peptideAnswer: reduces blood volume, blood pressure, and sodium concentration by signaling the kidneys Question: function of Answer: helps to pregnancy Question: that adipose tissue producesAnswer: Question: that skin producesAnswer: cholecalciferol Question: that kidney producesAnswer: erythropoietin Question: hormone that duodenum of intestine producesAnswer: Question: that stomach producesAnswer: Question: of leptinAnswer: binds to CNS neurons with appetite control Question: of cholecalciferolAnswer: activated by the kidneys to Vitamin D; stimulates absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal cells Question: of erythropoietinAnswer: stimulates the production of red cells Question: of cholecystokininAnswer: stimulates of bile Question: of gastrinAnswer: stimulates stomach to released acid Question: organ that glucagonAnswer: Question: organ that produces Answer: pituitary (adenohypophysis) Question: that produces thyroxineAnswer: thyroid Question: that produces reninAnswer: kidneys Question: organ that ADHAnswer: pituitary (neurohypophysis) Question: of glucagonAnswer: increases blood sugar level by stimulating Question: function of Answer: stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxine Question: function of Answer: increases the rate Question: function of Answer: red blood cell production Question: function of Answer: increases water reabsorption in tubules Question: category of of FSH & LHAnswer: Question: of hormone of cortisolAnswer: Question: of hormone of androgensAnswer: Question: category of of aldosteroneAnswer: mineralocorticoids Question: of gonadotropinsAnswer: regulate functions of in both sexes Question: function of Answer: blood levels of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids during stress Question: function of Answer: produce effects when produced in large quantities Question: of mineralocorticoidsAnswer: regulate Na+ reabsorption by the kidneys and regulates other electrolyte levels Question: hormone by posterior pituitaryAnswer: antidiuretic Question: produced by anterior pituitaryAnswer: hormone Question: produced by pancreasAnswer: Question: hormone produced by adrenal Answer: Question: hormone by adrenal medullaAnswer: epinephrine Question: function of hormoneAnswer: causes to conserve water Question: function of hormoneAnswer: stimulates embryonic cells (stem ) to undergo mitosis Question: of insulinAnswer: facilitates glucose transport into Question: of aldosteroneAnswer: increases Na+ in the kidneys Question: of epinephrineAnswer: increases cell during sympathetic response Question: hormone that would help to restore the balance for imbalance of lowered levels of Ca2+ in the bloodAnswer: hormone Question: hormone that would help to restore the balance for homeostatic imbalance of too much Ca2+ in Answer: calcitonin Question: hormone that would help to the balance for homeostatic imbalance of elevated levels of blood sugarAnswer: insulin Question: hormone that would help to restore the balance for imbalance of decreased levels of blood sugarAnswer: Question: hormone that would help to restore the balance for homeostatic imbalance of excessive levels of Na+ in extracellular Answer: Question: that would produce the hormone needed to restore homeostasis for end of 9 month pregnancyAnswer: pituitary Question: gland that would produce the needed to restore homeostasis for loss of Na+ from profuse sweatingAnswer: cortex Question: gland that would produce the hormone needed to restore homeostasis for high blood sugar due to too many sweetsAnswer: pancreas Question: gland that would produce the hormone needed to restore for drop in blood levels of Ca2+ due to extreme inactivityAnswer: Question: gland that would produce the hormone needed to restore homeostasis for /stunted growthAnswer: anterior Question: homeostatic of gigantism would be due to the hormone deficiency/overproduction ofAnswer: of GH Question: homeostatic imbalance of diabetes mellitus would be due to the hormone deficiency/overproduction Answer: insulin Question: homeostatic of sympathetic nervous system overactivity would be due to the hormone deficiency/overproduction ofAnswer: oversecretion of Question: homeostatic imbalance of 's disease would be due to the hormone deficiency/overproduction ofAnswer: hypersecretion of hormone Question: homeostatic imbalance of diabetes insipidus would be due to the hormone deficiency/overproduction Answer: hyposecretion of Question: hormone produced by zona reticularisAnswer: androgens Question: hormone produced by zona glomerulosaAnswer: Question: hormone produced by zona fasciculateAnswer: glucocorticoids Question: principle hormone produced by beta Answer: Question: control mechanismsAnswer: blood levels of substances and correct them Question: control mechanismAnswer: axons cause hormone Question: control mechanismAnswer: release is dependent upon other hormone levels Question: is NOT a endocrine organ, but produces hormones in addition to its major functionAnswer: Question: produce the hormones renin and Answer: cells Question: primary function of cells isAnswer: excretion of body Question: steroid influence cellular activities byAnswer: to DNA and forming a gene-hormone complex Question: steroid hormones enter cell & form DNA/hormone before theyAnswer: cellular function Question: preganglionic fibers of sympathetic neurons adrenal medulla toAnswer: epinephrine & norepinephrine Question: is either acid-based hormones or steroidsAnswer: chemical classification of Question: __ __ of most body is controlled directly by THAnswer: metabolic Question: secretion of parathyroid hormone is a good ofAnswer: humoral Question: stimulus for insulin isAnswer: high glucose concentration Question: transcription of new messenger RNA is a ofAnswer: hormones Question: iodine is required Answer: synthesis of hormone Question: portal system transports releasing & inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus toAnswer: pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) Question: signal that would affect local cells by releasing chemicals into extracellular Answer: paracrine Question: permissiveness is the in which a hormone __ __ its full effect without another hormoneAnswer: exhibit Question: NOT a true hormone, but, rather, a substanceAnswer: TSH Question: hypothalamus is a __ organAnswer: Question: protein kinases affect byAnswer: adding phosphate group (phosphorylation) to Question: "hormone response is located on theAnswer: cell Question: "hormone response element" Answer: site for a hormone to Question: -soluble hormones exhibitAnswer: half-life Question: normal endocrine controls can be __ __ by the nervous Answer: overridden Question: POMC is a __ for Answer: Question: iodination of thyroid hormones is byAnswer: peroxidase Question: congenital condition that includes mental retardation, short disproportional body size, and a tongue and neck is caused byAnswer: deficiency of Question: osteitis fibrosa is caused byAnswer: in parathyroid hormone Question: resistin, an insulin , is a hormone produced byAnswer: tissue Question: somatostatin is considered paracrine because it acts Answer: other than those that secrete it Question: alcohol intake inhibits the secretion of ADH, thus the absence of ADH there Answer: urine output Question: sympathetic nerve causes release of epinephrine and norepinephrineAnswer: from adrenal Question: adrenal medulla is a(n) __ glandAnswer: neurally Question: autoimmune response is said to be for __ __ diabetesAnswer: type Question: hormones of the thymus gland are inAnswer: formation of cells Question: __ __, main cells of immune system, mature in thymus gland, where they are stimulated by thymosin Answer: T Question: secretion of digestive enzymes is a(n) __ for the pancreasAnswer: exocrine Question: for the pancreas, production of insulin and glucagon is a(n) __ Answer: Question: is high at and low during daylight hoursAnswer: blood of melatonin Question: skin, the , and the kidneys contain cells or tissues thatAnswer: hormones Question: synthesis & release, or blood , of most hormones are regulated by a(n) __ __Answer: negative-feedback Question: __ __ for oxytocin are the smooth muscle cells of the uterus and the myoepithelial cells of the glandsAnswer: target Question: hormones are __ __ the extracellular Answer: secreted Question: most can be __ __ as either amino-acid based/steroidsAnswer: classified Question: hormones are __ __ signals that travel in blood or lymph throughout the Answer: "long-distance" Question: local hormones are released into the __ __ and only adjacent cells in the same tissueAnswer: fluid Question: that are derived from __ are called steroidsAnswer: cholesterol Question: hormones may communicate with their cells __ __ to an extracellular receptorAnswer: by binding Question: hormones may communicate with their target cells by __ __Answer: gene Question: a given hormone influences __ __ __ to as "target cells"Answer: only cells Question: hypothalamus __ __ of the glandAnswer: regulates Question: thymic hormones are in __Answer: immunity Question: antagonism has a(n) __ Answer: opposite |
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