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chapter 1&2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Homeostasis | maintain a relatively constant rate for the system to work properly |
| Positive feedback | The conditions are primarily stimulatory. the response is geared to enhance change to the system. |
| Negative feedback | the controls are primarily Inhibitory, The response is geared to oppose a change to system, either by preventing the change or to turn on the opposing action, thus affecting to normal state. |
| Synergy | defines the interaction of opposing (antagonistic)responses, while maintaining the homeostatic balnce in an organism. |
| Energy | Anything that allows work to happen. |
| Chemical Enegry | reaction between two or more comonents. |
| Endergonic | requiring energy |
| Exergonic | Producing energy |
| Mechanical energy | Energy used to physically move objects |
| Electro-Chemical | Energy that travels in waves |
| Radiant Energy | Energy that travels in waves |
| Nuclear energy | Energy released or gained by the process of: fission and fusion |
| Fission | of atomic nucleus( splitting the nucleus) |
| Fussion | of atomin nuclei (coming together) |
| Matter | defines anything that has amss ans occupies space. |
| The simplest form of matter | element |
| element | represented by the atomic forms (ex. H,C,O,N) |
| elements are further define a simpler for called | an atom |
| Atoms are composed of: | Nucleus, protons, neutrons, electrons |
| Nucleus: | which is subdivided into two subatomic particles |
| protons: | Atomic mass unit (AMU) value= 1, particles within the nucleus having captured a "positron" rendering it in to positive charged particle |
| Neutrons | AMU value: 1; paticles within the nucleus having captured both "positron and electron" rendering it into Neutral(0) charged particle. |
| Electron cloud: Set of orbits, sub-orbitals containing electrons | Set of orbits, sub-orbitals containing electrons |
| Electrons | AMU Value= "non-existent" (negligible)=0; Negatively(-) charged particle orbiting the nucleus |
| Atomic number | total number of protons (+) present in the nucleus of the atom |
| Electron number | number of electron(s) equals the number of Proton(s) in a neutral atom |
| Atomic mass number | the number of Protons plus the number of neutrons(0) in the nucleus |
| Neutron number | the difference obtained between the Atomic mass resulting in the atual number of neutrons |
| Octect rule | the necessity of an atom, which may be electro-neutral to reach a state of "fullness" |
| Compounds | Bonding of two or more different elements using any one or combination of the following forms of chemical bonds |
| Chemical bonding | the process of tranferring(ionic)or sharing(covalent) of electrons in the outer orbit with other atoms to achieve (Octect satisfaction) stability. |
| Ionic bonding | Ionic bonding occurs when an atom loses (tranfers) one or more electron(s) out and another atom gains (accepts) one or more electrons in for the expressed purpose of satisfying the octect rule |
| Covalent bonding | the sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms |
| polar | unequal sharing of electrons between different atoms |
| non-polar | equal sharing of electrons between like atoms; represented by the following possibilities of interaction |
| SINGLE NON-POLAR covalent bonding | when two atoms of same atomic number, share a pair of electrons |
| double non-polar covalent bonding | when two atoms of same atomic number share at least two pairs of electrons |
| triple non-polar covalent bonding | when two of same atomic number share at least 3 pairs of electrons |
| Hydrogen Bonds | When htdrogen atom acts as link between two other atoms |
| Di-Sulfide bond | the linkformed by the association of two sulfur atoms found in seperate amino acids |
| Electrolytes | soulble inorganic compounds whose ions may conduct an electric current in a solution ot along a membrane |
| types of electrolytes | Hydrophilic,hydrophobic |
| Hydrophilic | "water loving" molecules that will readily dissolve in water |
| Hydrophobic | "Water fearing" molecules that do not readily dissolve in water |
| Soultions | complex of a solvent and one or more solute |
| Solvent | fluid medium;generally water in a biological system |
| solute | Dissolved substance in the solvent, such as sugar, salt, proteins |
| Ionization | Dissociation of a molecule (water) in solution to form ions |
| Acidic substances | substances that when dissolved in a solutionincrease the hydronium ion or that decrease Hydroxl ion concentration in that solution |
| Basic substances | substances that when dissolved in a solution increase the Hydroxyl or that decrease hydronium ion concentration in that solution |
| Neutral substances | substance having an equal ratio of H+ to [OH-] ions concentration in solution |
| organic compounds | hydrocarbons and cabohydrates |
| Hydrocarbons | the basic substrate of most biologically active molecules |
| Carbohydrates | primarily use is producing cellular energy in for of (ATP) |
| types of carbohydrates | Monosacharides,disacharides,polyaccharides, lipids,proteins, nucleic acids |
| Categories of monoseccharides | Triose =3 carbon sugar, pentose = 5 carbon sugar, hexose = 6 carbon sugar |
| isomers | molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural configuration |
| mechanisms | (Anabolism and Canabolism) Di or polyaccharide synthesis and/or break down |
| Anabolism | dehydration synthesis (condensation): linking molecules by removing water forming chemical bond, resulting in the formation of a more complex molecule |
| glycosidic bond | the linkage of two hexose molecules using this synthesis reaction |
| Catabolism | Hydrolysis: breakdown of multiple units into individual building blocks by introducing h20 to cleave(splits) the molecules apart |
| Dissaccharides | Dimer of two hexose sugars, linked together by a glycosidic bond |
| types of dissaccharides | sucrose, maltose, lactose |
| sucrose | table(gluctose-Fructose) sugar |
| maltose | Malt (glucose-glucose) sugar |
| lactose | milk ( glucose-galactose) sugar |
| polyaccharides | polymer of many hexose sugars, linked together by many glycosidic bonds |
| types of polyaccharides | Glycogen, starches, cellulose, chitin, oligosaccharides |
| Glycogen | a polymer of many glucose molecules (animal starch) |
| starches | similar to glycogen but produced by plants; digestible by humans |
| cellulose fiber | similar to glycogen but produced by plants; indigestible by humans due to lack of enzyme cellulase |
| chitin | found in fungi and in the exoskeltons of all arthropods |
| oligosaccharides | "branched" polyaccharide(cell membrane antigens) |
| lipids | essential as: source of energy reserves; insulation of neurons |
| plasma membrane | a fluid-mosaic modle of many components |
| components of the Phospholpid bilayer | cholesterol, prostaglandin, cyclases, intrinsic/extrinstic proteins, aquaPorins, glycoclyx |
| Cholestrol | structural supports the membrane walls, much like steel rods support a building |
| prostaglandin | a membrane-bound hormone affecting many functions, through its molecular intermediation, including muscle toness, contraction and metabolism |
| cyclases | communicates cell functions through the nucleus |
| intrinsic/ extrinsic proteins | involved in cellular communication |
| AquaPorins | allows water molecules, passageinto or out of the cytoplasm |
| Glycocalyx | "Braille" SYSTEM of communication between the inside and the outside of the cell |
| modes of transportation | physical,physiological |
| physical (passive) | no additional energy is required. |
| types of physical transportation | pore diffusion, lipid diffusion, osmosis, dialysis, facilitated diffusion |
| pore diffusion | the flow of substances through dynamic pores. movement proceeds from high to low concentration |
| lipid diffusion | the flow of fat soluble substances through the phospho-lipid region of the membrane from an areas of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
| osmosis | the movement of water molecules through channel proteins within the membrane from an areas of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration |
| osmotic pressure: | force required to prevent the movement of water molecules against concentration gradient |
| terms associated with osmotic process | Osmotics, tonic, hyper, hypo, ISO, lysis, crenation |
| osmotic | a measure of solvent concentration in a solution |
| tonic | a measure of solute concentration in a solution |
| hyper | prefix to indicate "higher concentration of...than..." |
| Hypo | prefix to indicate "lower concentration of...than..." |
| ISO | prefix to indicate " same concentration of..as/equal to.." |
| Lysis | indicates that there is a "bursting of cells" from the cell taking in excess solvent |
| Crenation | indicates that the cell is "shrinking" as solvent leaves the system |
| Dialysis | a selectivly permeable membrane used to permit movement of some particles while keeping others from passing through |
| facilitated diffusion | essential nutrients that are too large to pass through membrane |
| physiological | (active: process requires additional energy (ATP) source, and substances moves from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration and vice versa |
| types of physiological transportation | active molecular transport, endocytosis, exocytosis |
| Active molecular transport | the sodium/ potassium pump as observed in nerve impulse propagation in a nerve cell. Calcium channels in nerve cells and musle fiberd muscle concentration |
| endocytosis | brings one or more things into cell |
| receptor mediated endocytosis | transporting a specific targeted substance into the cell, requires the help of Na+ to act as a co-carrier to transport anything into cell |
| phagocytosis | cell eating large/small particles |
| pinocytosis | cell drinking small particles |
| exocytosis | involves the elimination of waste; cell product secretions |
| merocrine | cell secretion whereby there is a form of "reverse pinocytosis" |
| apocrine | the tip of cell breaks off, thus releasing a packet of cell secretory products |
| endoplasmic reticulum | netwoek of intracellular membranes, originationg from cell membrane and actively involved in the synthesis, storage and delivery of some of the cell's products |
| granular | contains ribosomes which translate RNA (rough) strands into chains of amino acids into polypeptide chains protein synthesis |
| agranular | (smooth) free of ribosomes; involved in detoxification of drugs; synthesis of polysaccharides; steriodial hormones and lipids |
| the golgi apparatus | derived through the fractioning of the smooth ER |
| lysosomes | micro vesicles containing digestive, hydrolytic enzymes, which perform cleanup and recycling functions inside or outside the cell |
| autolytic vesicles | cell bound; specializing in digesting of dead and decaying cell organelles |
| phagosomes | cell bound; within phagocytes; responsible for intracellular digestion |
| acrosomes | cell bound; found on the head of the sperm, permits fertilization to take place |
| lysozymes | fluid bond; kills bacteria and fungi from outside, found outside the cell in tears, saliva mucous, sweat, sebum, cerum, urine, milk, semen, and vaginal secretion |
| embryonic lysosomes | highly active lysosomes in the embryo/fetus |
| perixisomes | package of catalytic enzymes; speeds up the conversion of toxins into lesser toxic states |
| mitochondrion | a prokaryotic symbiont co-evolving with the eukaryotic cell for a mutual benefit; it is involved in the aerobic pespiration process to make energy |
| nucleus | directs most of the cells functions, contains the molecule DNA whichmdictates both replicative and transcriptive that can be translated by the RER into polypeptide chains, thus governing the functions of the cell via the synthesis of proteins |
| cytoskeleton | an internal protein framework that gives the cytoplasm strength and flexibility |
| microfilaments | composed of slender protein strands (fibers) that form a dense layer under the cells membrane. |
| intermediate filaments | provide strnght; stabalize position of the organelles; transport materials within the cell; found in smooth muscle ccells- mesh around cell permits sarcomeric attachments, used in muscle contractions |
| thick filaments | composed of Myosin protein subunits associated with Actin found in muscle sarcomere permitting muscle contraction |
| microtubules | hollow tubes built from the globular protein Tubulin; used to "move" organlles around the cell |
| centrosomes | consist of two centrioles: direct the synthesis of spindle fibers; involved in Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis |
| micovilli | small finger-like projections of the cell-membrane; increases surface areas and movement |
| cilia | undulating, hair-like structures that move fluids or secretions across a stationary cell, usually associated with the respitory tract and fallopian tubes |
| flagella | they move a cell through fluids instead of moving fluids across a stationary cell |
| sterocilia | patches of microcilia dispersed on specialized cells found in the inner ear |
| ribosomes | associated with rough ER, can be fixed or free |
| cell junctions | desmosomes, tight, gap |
| Desmosomes | zipper like linkage between cell membranes; permits stretching; rich in collagen and elastin molecules, proteoglycans(skin); accomadate growth |
| tight | spotwelds: fusion of adjacent membrane regions; rich in intermediate filaments; forms interfacial canals for communication |
| gap | fusion of membrane-bound "intrinsic" proteins to form a bridge between cells |
| cytoplasm | liquid compartment of the cell; contains water, electrolytes, metabolites, enzymes, wastes .etc. which mediate most chemical events that takes place within the cell |
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