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Define Physiology
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A&P pre-req/Quiz 1
Ch. 1-3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define Anatomy | study of internal & external structures of the body and the physical relationships among body parts. FORM. Describes structures of the body...what theyre made of, where theyre located, associated structures. |
| Define Physiology | A study of how living organisms perform their vital functions. FUNCTION. Study of functions of anatomical structures and individual & cooperative functions |
| Integumentary System: Organs and Functions | Skin, hair, sweat glands, nails...Protection from environment, body temp regulation, provides sensory info. |
| Skeletal System: Organs and Functions | Bones, cartilages, ligaments, bone marrow...Supports and protects other tissues, stores calcium & other minerals, forms blood cells. |
| Muscular System: Organs and Functions | Skeletal muscles (and associated tendons and aponeuroses/tendinous sheets)...Provides movement, protects and supports other tissues, generates heat that maintains body temp. |
| Nervous System: Organs and Functions | Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs...directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates/moderates other organ system activities, provides & interprets sensory info about external conditions. |
| Endocrine System: Organs and Functions | Pituitary, thyroid, & adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, endocrine tissues...Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems, adjusts metabolic activity and NRG use by the body, controls many structural and functional changes during dev. |
| Cardiovascular System: Organs and Functions | Heart, blood, blood vessels...distributes blood cells, water, & dissolved materials (like nutrients, waste products, O2, CO2), distributes heat and assists in control of body temp. |
| Lymphatic System: Organs and Functions | Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils...defends against infection & disease, returns tissue fluids to bloodstream. |
| Urinary System: Organs and Functions | Kidneys, Ureters, bladder, urethra...excretes waste products from blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced, stores urine before elimination, regulates blood ion concentrations and pH. |
| Male Reproductive System: Organs and Functions | Testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis, scrotum...produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones. |
| Female Reproductive System: Organs and Functions | Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands. |
| Define homeostasis & homeostatic regulation | Homeostasis=existence of a stable internal environment. Homeostatic regulation=ADJUSTMENT of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis. |
| Identify and Define the 2 types of homeostatic regulation | autoregulation/intristic=cell, tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts activities automatically in response to environmental change...Extrinsic regulation=activities of the nervous system or endocrine system adjust or control other systems simultaneously. |
| Negative vs. Positive Feedback | Negative=body reacts in a way to undo stimulus affects; most common; ie sweating, shivering...Positive=body reacts in a way to amplify or grow stimulus effects; less common; ie blood clotting, child birth |
| Vasodilation vs. Vasoconstriction | Dilation=blood vessels open up, moving closer to skin and releasing heat in warm environments...Constriction=blood vessels get smaller, move deeper under skin surface to retain heat in colder environments. |
| Anterior/ventral vs. Posterior/dorsal | Anterior=front side...Posterior=back side [dorsal~dorsal fin on back] |
| Superior vs. (Caudal vs. cranial) Inferior | Superior=comparatively more toward the head...(Caudal=closer to coccyx (tail bone), cranial=closer to head)...Inferior=comparatively more toward the feet |
| Medial vs. Lateral | Medial=towards the body's longitudinal plane (nose-->navel-->genitals)...Lateral=Away from body's longitudinal plane. |
| Proximal vs. Distal | Proximal=toward an attached base (ie shoulder, pelvis)...Distal=away from attached base (ie extremities). |
| Superficial vs. Deep | Superficial=closer to body surface...Deep=away from body surface. |
| Coronal plane vs. Sagittal Plane vs. Transverse Plane | Coronal=(Frontal section) splitting anterior and posterior... Sagittal=splitting left and right(mid-=equal left and right, para-=UNequal left and right)...Transverse=splitting top and bottom through naval. |
| Purpose of Body Cavities | Provides protection, allows organ movement, linings prevent friction. |
| Thoracic Cavity | Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm. Split into mediastinum and left & right pleural cavities. |
| Pleural Cavity | (Thoracic) 2 cavities that surround left and right lungs. |
| Mediastinum | (Thoracic) Contains trachea, esophagus, and major vessels. Split into pericardial cavity. |
| Pericardial Cavity | (Thoracic) Surrounds heart. |
| Abdominopelvic Cavity | Inferior to thoracic cavity. Contains peritoneal-->abdominal+pelvic |
| Peritoneal Cavity | (Abdominopelvic) Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior (upper) portion or pelvic cavity. Split into abdominal and pelvic cavities. |
| Abdominal Cavity | (Abdominopelvic) Contains many digestive glands and organs. |
| Pelvic Cavity | (Abdominopelvic) Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract. |
| Retroperitoneal Organs | Organs that lie between the peritoneal lining and the muscular wall of the abdominal cavity. Include Acending Colon, Descending Colon, Rectum, Kidnets, Pancreas, and Duodenum. [AC/DC Rocker Kids Party Dicks] |
| Synthesis Reaction | Anabolism, building up. [A comes before C, building comes before break down]. Forms chemical bonds (a + b -> ab). Dehydration synthesis (abc-H + de-OH-> abcde + H2O...water released). ie amino acids->protein |
| Decomposition Reaction | Catabolism, breaking down. [CATs are too lazy to build or make stuff]. Breaks chemical bonds (ab -> a + b). Hydrolysis (abcde + H2O -> abc-H + de-OH). ie glycogen->glucose molecules |
| Exchange/Displacement Reaction | Coupling of decomposition (ab->a + b) and synthesis (a + c->ac) --> (ab + c->ac + b). ie A-PP-P (ATP) + glucose -> A-PP (ADP) + glucose-P. |
| Reversible Reactions | Occurs simultaneously in both directions(ab <-> a + b). At equilibrium the amts of chemicals dont change even though the reactions are still occurring. Reversible rxns seek equilibrium, balancing opposing rxn rates. adjust with new amt of reactants |
| Human Blood pH | 7.35-7.45 |
| Physiological pH | 7.2-7.5 |
| Buffers | Weak acid/salt compounds that neutralize strong acids or strong bases. ie sodium bicarbonate (very important in humans in Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system). |
| Antacids | Basic compounds that neutralizes acids and forms a salt. |
| Carboxyl group | (-COOH) Acts as an acid, releasing H+ to become R-COO^-. ie fatty acids, amino acids |
| Amino group | (-NH2) Can accept or release H+ depending on pH; can form bonds with other molecules. ie amino acids |
| Hydroxyl group | (-OH) may link molecules through dehydration synthesis; hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups and water molecules affect solubility. ie carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids |
| Phosphate group | (-PO4) May link other molecules to form larger structures; may store energy in high-energy bonds. ie phospholipids, nucleic acids, high-energy compounds. |
| Carbohydrates | contain C, H, and O, in a 1:2:1 ratio ie C6H12O6 |
| Lipids | Made mostly of C and H in the ratio 1:2. ie C2H4 |
| Types of Lipids | Fatty acids, eicosanoids, glycerides, steroids, phospholipids and glycolipids |
| Fatty Acids | Long chains of C and H with a carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one end. May be saturated (no covalent/double bonds) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds). Function as energy source. |
| Eicosanoids...Leukotrienes & Prostaglandins | Derived from fatty acid called araciodonic acid, are chemical messengers coordinating local cellular activities...Leukotrienes=active in immune system, prostaglandins=local hormones, short-chain fatty acids. |
| Glycerides | Fatty acid(s) attached to a glycerol molecule. Function as energy source, energy storage, insulation, and physical protection. |
| Definition and functions of Triglycerides (aka tricylglycerols or neutral fats) | 3 fatty acids attached to glycerol molecule...3 functions: energy source, insulation, protection. |
| Steroids...4 types | 4 rings of C & H with assortment of functional groups...types: Cholesterol (component of plasma membranes), estrogen & testosterone (sex hormones), corticosteroids and calcitriol (metabolic regulation), bile salts (derived from steroids). |
| Phospholipids (O<) and Glycolipids (ooo<) | Diglycerides attached to phosphate group (phospholipid) or sugar (glycolipid). Both with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. Are structural lipids, components of plasma (cell) membranes. |
| Proteins | Chains of amino acids (~20), hooked by dehydration synthesis between amino group and carboxylic acid groups of diff amino acids (produces peptides). Are the most abundant and important organic molecules. |
| 7 Functions of protein...types of Protein | Support (structural proteins), movement (contractile proteins), transport (transport/carrier proteins), buffering/pH regulation, metabolic regulation (enzymes), coordination and control (hormones), defense (antibodies). |
| Cofactors...Coenzymes | Cofactors=ion or molecule that binds to enzyme before substrates can bind...Coenzyme=nonprotein organic cofactors. |
| Enzymes...Isozymes | Catalyze intra or extracellular rxns;proteins that lower activation NRG, amount stays constant. Are limited by saturation, regulated by other cellular chemicals, temp & pH dependent for optimal function. Isozymes=2 enzymes that can catalyze the same rxn |
| Fibrous proteins vs. globular proteins | Fibrous=structural sheets or strands (ie keratin or collagen)...Globular=soluble spheres with active functions based on shape (ie myoglobin and hemoglobin). |
| Glycoproteins | Large protein + small carb. ie enzymes, antibodies, hormones, mucus production. Promote viscosity (ie mucins absorb water to provide lubrication of digestive & reproductive organ surfaces) |
| Proteoglycans | Large polysaccharides (carb) + polypeptides (protein). |
| Purines vs. Pyrimidines | Purines=AG [PURe As Gold]...Pyrimidines=C TU [CUT the PY] |
| Adenine-Thymine bonds vs. Guanine-Cytosine bonds | A-T with 2 H-bonds G-C with 3 H-bonds [G and C are curvy like 3] |
| Cell/Plasma Membrane Composition | 98% composed of lipids-->75% are phospholipids (amphipathic/polar-nonpolar molecules), 20% are cholesterol, 5% are glycolipids (extracellular glycocalyx). Head=polar, hydrophilic. Tails=nonpolar, fatty acid, hydrophobic. |
| Membrane Protein Types | Anchoring, recognition, enzymes, receptor, carrier, channel (leak and gated). |
| Anchoring Proteins | Attach cell membranes to one another or internal or external structures. |
| Recognition Proteins | Identify cell and prevent attack by immune system. |
| Enzymes | Catalyze intracellular or extracellular reactions. |
| Receptor Proteins | Bind to specific ligands in extracellular fluid |
| Carrier Proteins | Moves solutes across membrane; may or may not require ATP. |
| Leak Channels vs. Gated Channels | Leak=permit continuous movement of water and ions (ie Na+, K+, etc.) Gated=close or open to regulate ion movement |
| Membrane Carbohydrates Functions | Lubrication & Protection, Anchoring & Locomotion, Specificity & Binding (blood typing). |
| Blood Typing+Plasma Antibodies | Type A=type B antibodies Type B=type A antibodies Type O=both A and B antibodies Type AB=neither A nor B antibodies |
| Cytoplasm composition | Intracellular fluid (cytosol) and organelles (membraneous and nonmembraneous) |
| NONmembraneous Organelles list (NM) | Cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrosome, cilia, ribosomes, proteasomes. |
| Cytoskeleton: Composition and Function | NM. Proteins organized in microfilaments or microtubules...Strength and support; movement of cellular structures and materials. |
| Microvilli: Composition and Function | NM. Membrane extensions containing microfilaments...Increase surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials. |
| Centrosome: Composition and Function | NM. Cytoplasm containing 2 centrioles at right angles; each centriole composed of 9 microtubule triplets...essential for chromosome movement during cell division (centrioles form spindle apparatus); organization of microtubules in cytoskeleton. |
| Cilia: Composition and Function | NM. Membrane extensions containing microtubule pairs...movement of materials over cell surface by beating rhythmically. |
| Ribosomes: Composition and Function | NM. RNA+Proteins; fixed ribosomes bound to rough ER, free ribosomes scattered in cytoplasm...Protein synthesis |
| Proteasomes: Composition and Function | NM. Hollow cylinders of proteolytic enzymes with regulatory proteins at ends...breakdown and recycling of damaged or abnormal intracellular proteins. |
| Membraneous Organelles list (M) | Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosome, peroxisome, nucleus. |
| Mitochondria: Composition and Function | M. Double membrane, w/ inner membrane folds (cristae) enclosing important metabolic enzymes...produce 95% of ATP required by cell. (Endosymbiotic theory, cellular respiration) |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Composition and Function | M. Network of membraneous channels extending throughout the cytoplasm...synthesis of secretory products; intracellular storage and transport. Consists of Rough and Smooth ER. |
| Rough ER vs. Smooth ER | M. ROUGH=Has ribosomes bound to membranes...modification and packaging of newly synthesized proteins (secondary & tertiary structure). SMOOTH=Lacks attached ribosomes...lipid and carbohydrate synthesis, storage, detoxification |
| Golgi Apparatus: Composition and FuDNAnction | M. Stacks of flattened membranes (cisternae) containing chambers...Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes. |
| Lysosome: Composition and Function | M. Vesicles containing digestive enzymes...intracellular removal of damaged organelles or pathogens [lysosome=lysol=cleans up cell]. Primary=inactiveEnzymes, secondary=activeEnzymes. |
| Peroxisome: Composition and Function | M. Vesicles containing degradative enzymes...Catabolism (breakdown) of fats and other organic compounds; neutralization of toxic compounds generated in the process. [Hydrogen Peroxide, peroxisomes...neutralizes toxic byproducts] |
| Nucleus: Composition and Function | M. Nucleoplasm containing nucleotides, enzymes, nucleoproteins, and chromatin; surrounded by double membrane (nuclear envelope)...Control of metabolism; storage and processing of genetic info; control of protein synthesis. |
| Nucleolus: Composition and Function | (Within nucleus) Dense region in nucleoplasm containing DNA and RNA...Site of rRNA synthesis and assembly of ribosomal subunits. |
| DNA...Gene...Genetic Code | DNA=instructions for every protein in the body...Gene=DNA instructions for one protein...Genetic Code=chemical language of DNA instructions (A,T,C,G triplets -> 1 amino acid) |
| Diffusion vs. Osmosis | Diffusion=Net movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration...Osmosis=movement of WATER from lower solute concentration+osmotic pressure to a region of higher S.C.+O.P. across a semi-permeable membrane. |
| Define Osmotic Pressure (high vs. low) | The force that opposes the movement of water. Higher solute=higher opposition to the movement of water. |
| Osmolarity & Tonicity | Osmolarity=measure of the concentration of solute in the extracellular solution...Tonicity=measure of water pressure |
| Carrier-Mediated/Specific Transport Definition and Types | Movement through specific membrane proteins...Facilitated diffusion, (primary) active transport, secondary active transport. |
| Facilitated Diffusion: Process, Rate-Affecting Factors, and Substances involved. | Carrier proteins PASSIVELY transport solutes across a membrane DOWN/WITH a concentration gradient...gradient size, temp, and carrier protein availability...Glucose and amino acids. |
| Primary Active Transport: Process, Rate-Affecting Factors, and Substances involved. | Carrier proteins ACTIVELY transport solutes across a membrane often AGAINST a concentration gradient...availability of carrier, substrates, and ATP...Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++; other solutes by specialized cells. |
| Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump | Example of Primary Active Transport. Uses 1 ATP to move 3Na+ ions out of cell and 2K+ ions into the cell. |
| Secondary Active Transport: Process, Rate-Affecting Factors, and Substances involved. | Carrier proteins passively transport 2 solutes, with one (normally Na+) moving down its concentration gradient; the cell later uses ATP to eject the Na+...Availability of carrier, substrates, and ATP...Glucose and Amino acids; iodide. |
| Glucose-sodium Symporter | Example of secondary active transport. Transports Glucose molecule into cell through protein with Na+ ion (3Na+ later pumped out of cell through Sodium-Potassium Pump). |
| Endocytosis: Process, Rate-Affecting Factors, and Substances involved. | Creation of membraneous vesicles containing fluid (Pinocytosis/"cell drinking") or solid material (Phagocytosis/"cell eating")...Stimulus&mechanics incompletely understood; requires ATP...fluids, nutrients;debris, pathogens (specialized cells). |
| Exocytosis: Process, Rate-Affecting Factors, and Substances involved. | Fusion of vesicles containing fluids and/or solids with the plasma membrane...stimulus and mechanics incompletely understood; requires ATP...Fluids, debris. |
| Interphase | G1 Phase, S Phase, and G2 Phase. Between 2 cell divisions. |
| G1 Phase | Normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, protein synthesis. >8 hours |
| S Phase | DNA replication, synthesis of histones. 6-8 hours |
| G2 Phase | Protein synthesis. 2-5 hours |
| Mitosis | Division of parent cell/nucleus into to equal daughter cells w/ all of parent cell chromosomes. 1-3 hours |
| Steps of Mitosis | Prophase (formation of chromosomes, spindle fiber preparation), Metaphase (lining up of chromosomes on spindle fibers to prepare for separation), Anaphase (splitting of chromosomes), Telophase (cleavage of nucleus into 2 w/ full chromosome sets). |
| Cytokinesis | Completion of mitosis; splitting of cell cytoplasm into 2 daughter cells. |
| Causes of increased cell division | internal factors (M-phase promoting factor/MPF), extracellular chemical factors (growth factors). Faulty repressor genes. |
| Causes of decreased cell division | Repressor genes, worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments). |
| Steps of cancer | Abnormal cell -> primary tumor -> Metastasis -> Secondary tumor |
| Tumor (neoplasm) | Enlarged mass of cells; abnormal cell growth and division |
| Benign Tumor vs. Malignant tumor | Benign=contained in location, not life threatening... Malignant=spreads into surrounding tissues through blood stream (invasion), starts new tumors (metastasis). |
| Cell Differentiation | Specialization of cells to form specific tissues by turning off all genes not needed by that cell (in other words, depends on which genes are active and inactive). |
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